<text>Due to the ongoing operation of the Magellan spacecraft, the United States has not funded any further Venus missions. The Soviets had originally planned further Venus missions from 1986 to 1994 but have decided to focus instead on Mars.Therefore, no future missions to Venus are scheduled.</text>
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<text>This image is a mosaic of Magellan orbits 385-399. It covers a region 370 kilometers (220 miles) wide and 455 kilometers (270 miles) high, centered at about 30 degrees north latitude, 335 south longitude, in southeast Guinevere Planitia in the Navka Region of Venus. Trending from lower right toward upper left of the image is a long, sinuous, radar-dark rille-like feature. This rille is about 500 kilometers (300 miles) long in this image, and it has been traced for approximately an additional 500 kilometers to the east where its source may lie buried beneath younger plains volcanics. The rille maintains a nearly constant width of between 750 meters (230 feet) and 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) throughout its length. It appears to terminate in the broad, radar-dark V-shaped plains unit at the upper left. The margins of the rille are bright in the radar, suggesting levees similar to terrestrial lava channel levees. In addition, a number of faint, apparently abandoned rilles branch off the main rille, suggesting that flow was maintained for a relatively long time. Its great dimensions and implied longevity are likely due to the ability of lava in Venus' high temperature environment to remain fluid and thermally erode terrain over great distances when compared to terrestrial lava flows. </text>
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<text>One of the most useful Magellan standard data products is the full resolution mosaic, the F-MIDR (Full-Resolution Mosaicked Image Data Record). These products are mosaics of about 500 kilometer (300 mile) segments of 30 or more individual image strips. This image is an F-MIDR made from orbits 376 to 407, obtained between September 15 and September 19, 1990, part of the first orbits in which the Magellan flight team operated the radar system in the mapping mode. The mosaic is centered at 27 degrees south latitude, 339 degrees longitude, in the Lavinia region of Venus. Three large impact craters with diameters ranging from 37 kilometers (23 miles) to 50 kilometers (30 miles) can be seen located in a region of fractured plains. The craters show many features typical of meteorite impact craters, including rough, radar-bright ejecta, terraced inner walls and central peaks. Numerous domes of probable volcanic origin can be seen in the southeastern corner of the mosaic. The domes range in diameter from 1-12 kilometers (0.6-7 miles). and some have central pits typical of volcanic shields or cones. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 feet). </text>
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<text>This image is a mosaic of 24 orbits of the Navka region of Venus. The image is centered at about 10 degrees south latitude and 335 degrees east longitude. The image is about 400 km (240 miles) across. "Behepa 8" marks the approximate landing site of the Soviet Venera 8 lander, which took measurements at the surface of Venus in 1972. The Venera 8 lander measured granitic or continental-like materials at the landing site. Magellan data reveals the landing site to lie in a region of plains cut by tectonic ridges and troughs. Volcanic domes and flows are seen throughout the region. Studying the regional setting of the Venera landing sites is important in linking information about surface composition to surface morphology seen in radar images. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 feet). </text>
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<text>These radar images show an identical area on Venus (centered at 110 degrees longitude and 64 degrees north latitude) as imaged by the U.S. Magellan spacecraft in 1991 (left) and the U.S.S.R. Venera 15/16 spacecraft in the early 1980's (right). Illumination is from the left (or west) in the Magellan image (left) and from the right (or east) in the Venera image (right). Differences in apparent shading in the images are due to differences in the two radar imaging systems. Prior to Magellan, the Venera 15/16 data was the best available for scientists studying Venus. Much greater detail is visible in the Magellan image owing to the greater resolution of the Magellan radar system. In the area seen here, approximately 200 small volcanoes, ranging in diameter from 2 to 12 kilometers (1.2 to 7.4 miles) can be identified. These volcanoes were first identified as small hills in Venera 15/16 images and were predicted to be shield-type volcanoes constructed mainly from eruptions of fluid lava flows similar to those that produce the Hawaiian Islands and sea floor volcanoes -- a prediction that was confirmed by Magellan. These small shield-type volcanoes are the most abundant geologic feature on the surface of Venus, believed to number in the hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, and are important evidence in understanding the geologic evolution of the planet. The only other planet in our Solar System with this large number of volcanoes is Earth. Clearly visible in the Magellan image are details of volcano morphology, such as variation in slope, the occurrence and size range of summit craters, and geologic age relationships between adjacent volcanoes, as well as additional volcanoes that were not identifiable in the Venera image. </text>
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<text>This image compares Magellan data acquired in August 1990 during the initial test of the radar system (black and white insets), with data acquired by the spacecraft in April 1991 (color background). The area is in the southern hemisphere of Venus, and represents an area about 540 kilometers (335 miles) on a side, centered on latitude 35 degrees south and longitude 294 degrees east. The Magellan radar illuminates the surface from the left. The northern and eastern parts of the area consist of plains, which appear moderately-dark to dark on the radar image because they are relatively smooth at a scale comparable to the wavelength of the radar, 12.5 centimeters (about 5 inches). The bright terrain in the southwestern part of the image is about 500 to 700 meters (1640 to 2300 feet) higher than the plains; it is characterized by abundant faults and fractures, which appear as straight to gently curved bright lines. Many of these linear features are large enough to infer that they are graben, which are troughs bounded on both sides by faults. However, many of them are too narrow to determine if they are faults or simply fractures that have toughened the surface. This elevated faulted and fractured region is part of a large east-west elongated ridge mapped by the Pioneer Venus radar altimeter; the portion shown here is about midway between Themis Regio and Tefnut Mons. The plains are probably underlain by volcanic lavas. The various shades indicate that minor differences in surface roughness are present, and these may be used to map out the distribution of different lavas. The small, bright patches on the plains represent places where the lava surfaces are relatively rough. Just left of the center of the image is a sharply defined volcanic crater about 15 kilometers (9.3 miles) in diameter. Immediately north of this crater are numerous round spots about 2-4 kilometers (1-2 miles) across that are small volcanic domes. The low-resolution strip along the eastern edge of this image represents earth-based Arecibo data at a resolution about 20 times coarser than that of the Magellan data </text>
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<text>This image shows the locations of the first Magellan radar test ground track. The background image was made by the U.S. National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center's Arecibo Observatory Puerto Rico. Resolution of the Arecibo radar image is 2 to 3 kilometers approximately ten times coarser than the Magellan images. The Arecibo image covers that part of Venus which faces Earth every nineteen months when Venus and Earth come closest to each other in their orbits around the sun (from 68 degrees North to 65 degrees South latitude, 270 degrees to 30 degrees East longitude). The Arecibo Observatory is operated by Cornell University for the National Science Foundation. </text>
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<text>These radar images show an identical area on Venus (centered at 110 degrees longitude and 64 degrees north latitude) as imaged by the U.S. Magellan spacecraft in 1991 (left) and the U.S.S.R. Venera 15/16 spacecraft in the early 1980's (right). Illumination is from the left (or west) in the Magellan image (left) and from the right (or east) in the Venera image (right). Differences in apparent shading in the images are due to differences in the two radar imaging systems. Prior to Magellan, the Venera 15/16 data was the best available for scientists studying Venus. Much greater detail is visible in the Magellan image owing to the greater resolution of the Magellan radar system. In the area seen here, approximately 200 small volcanoes, ranging in diameter from 2 to 12 kilometers (1.2 to 7.4 miles) can be identified. These volcanoes were first identified as small hills in Venera 15/16 images and were predicted to be shield-type volcanoes constructed mainly from eruptions of fluid lava flows similar to those that produce the Hawaiian Islands and sea floor volcanoes -- a prediction that was confirmed by Magellan. These small shield-type volcanoes are the most abundant geologic feature on the surface of Venus, believed to number in the hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, and are important evidence in understanding the geologic evolution of the planet. The only other planet in our Solar System with this large number of volcanoes is Earth. Clearly visible in the Magellan image are details of volcano morphology, such as variation in slope, the occurrence and size range of summit craters, and geologic age relationships between adjacent volcanoes, as well as additional volcanoes that were not identifiable in the Venera image. </text>
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<text> This image is a composite of the first two orbits recorded by the Magellan spacecraft in August 1990 during the initial in-orbit test of the radar system. The data, which are superimposed on Pioneer Venus topography, are located at the intersection of Devana Chasma and the Phoebe Regio upland. The image covers a region approximately 525 kilometers by 525 kilometers (315 x 315 miles), centered at the equator and 288 degrees east longitude. It includes part of the 150 kilometer (90 miles) wide, 1.0 to 1.5 kilometer (0.6 to 0.9 miles) deep valley, Devana Chasma. Devana Chasma consists of radar bright lineaments, interpreted to be fault scarps, oriented in a north-northeast direction. This part of the planet is thought to be an area where the crust is being stretched and pulled apart producing a rift valley, similar to the East African rift.
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<text> A mission to send a spacecraft to map the surface of Venus with imaging radar is underway at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The project is called Magellan. The spacecraft's basic science instrument is its synthetic aperture radar, or SAR, which can look through the thick clouds that perpetually shield the surface of Venus. Magellan will orbit the planet for 243 Earth days, one Venus day, on its primary mission. During that time it will map from 70 to90 percent of the Venus surface. Magellan was launched aboard the space shuttle Atlantis on May 4, 1989. Atlantis carried the spacecraft into low Earth orbit and an inertial upper stage, or IUS, sent Magellan on its way to Venus. The cruise will take 15 months because the Magellanspacecraft will make more than one and one-half revolutions around the Sun before it arrives at Venus. Once at Venus, Magellan will be placed in an elliptical orbit that will take it as close as 250 kilometers (155 miles) and as far as 8,029 kilometers (4,889 miles) from the planet. The spacecraft will complete one orbit every three hours and nineminutes. During its primary mission it will map most of theplanet and if a further mission cycle is approved, the spacecraft will map areas it will have missed and perform gravity experiments.</text>
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<text>These images are two versions of a near-infrared map of lower level clouds on the night side of Venus, obtained by the Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer aboard the Galileo spacecraft as it approached the planet February 10, 1990. Taken from an altitude of about 60,000 miles above the planet, at an infrared wavelength of 2.3 microns (about three times the longest wavelength visible to the human eye) the map shows the turbulent cloudy middle atmosphere some 30-33 miles above the surface, 6-10 miles below the visible cloudtops. The image to the left shows the radiant heat. from the lower atmosphere (about 400 degrees Fahrenheit) Shining through the sulfuric acid clouds, which appear as much as 10 times darker than the bright gaps between clouds. This cloud layer is at about -30 degrees Fahrenheit, at a pressure about 1/2 Earth's atmospheric pressure. About 2/3 of the dark hemisphere is visible, centered on longitude 350 West, with bright slivers of daylit high clouds visible at top and bottom left. The right image, a modified negative, represents what scientists believe would be the visual appearance of this mid-level cloud deck in daylight, with the clouds reflecting sunlight instead of blocking out infrared from the hot planet and lower atmosphere. Near the equator, the clouds appear fluffy and blocky; farther north, they are stretched out into East-West filaments by winds estimated at more than 150 mph, while the poles are capped by thick clouds at this altitude.The Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) on the Galileospacecraft is a combined mapping (imaging) and spectralinstrument. It can sense 408 contiguous wavelengths from 0.7 microns (deep red) to 5.2 microns, and can construct a map or image by mechanical scanning. It can spectroscopically analyzeatmospheres and surfaces and construct thermal and chemical maps.Designed and operated by scientists and engineers at the JetPropulsion Laboratory, NIMS involves 15 scientists in the U.S., England, and France.The Galileo Project is managed for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications by JPL; its mission is to study the planet Jupiter and its satellites and magnetosphere after multiple gravity-assist flybys at Venus and the Earth.</text>
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<text>These images are two versions of a near-infrared map of lower level clouds on the night side of Venus, obtained by the Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer aboard the Galileo spacecraft as it approached the planet February 10, 1990. Taken from an altitude of about 22,000 miles above the planet, at an infrared wavelength of 2.3 microns (about three times the longest wavelength visible to the human eye) the map shows an area of the turbulent, cloudy middle atmosphere some 30-33 miles above the surface, 6-10 miles below the visible cloudtops. With a spatial resolution of about 13 miles, this is the sharpest image ever obtained of the mid-level clouds of Venus. The image to the left shows the radiant heat from the lower atmosphere (about 400 degrees Fahrenheit) shining through the sulfuric acid clouds, which appear as much as 10 times darker than the bright gaps between clouds. This cloud layer is at about -30 degrees Fahrenheit, at a pressure about 1/2 Earth's atmospheric pressure. This high-resolution map covers a 40-degree-wide sector of the Northern Hemisphere. The several irregular vertical stripes are data dropouts. The right image, a modified negative, represents what scientists believe would be the visual appearance of this mid-level cloud deck in daylight, with the clouds reflecting sunlight instead of blocking out infrared from the hot planet and lower atmosphere. Near the equator, the clouds appear fluffy and blocky; farther north, they are stretched out into East-West filaments by winds estimated at more than 150 mph, while the poles are capped by thick clouds at this altitude. The Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) on the Galileo spacecraft is a combined mapping (imaging) and spectral instrument. It can sense 408 contiguous wavelengths from 0.7 microns (deep red) to 5.2 microns, and can construct a map or image by mechanical scanning. It can spectroscopic-ally analyze atmospheres and surfaces and construct thermal and chemical maps. Designed and operated by scientists and engineers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NIMS involves 15 scientists in the U.S., England, and France. The Galileo Project is managed for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications by JPL; its mission is to study the planet Jupiter and its satellites and magnetosphere after multiple gravity-assist flybys at Venus and the Earth.</text>
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<text> This series of pictures shows four views of the planet Venus obtained by Galileo's Solid State Imaging System at ranges of 1.4 to 2 million miles as the spacecraft receded from Venus. The pictures in the top row were taken about 4 and 5 days after closest approach; those in the bottom row were taken about 6 days out, 2 hours apart. In these violet-light images, north is at the top and the evening terminator to the left. The cloud features high in the planet's atmosphere rotate from right to left, from the limb through the noon meridian toward the terminator, traveling all the way around the planet once every four days. The motion can be seen by comparing the last two pictures, taken two hours apart. The other views show entirely different faces of Venus. These photographs are part or the "Venus global circulation" sequence planned by the imaging team. The Galileo Project is managed for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory; its mission isto study Jupiter and its satellites and magnetosphere after multiple gravity-assist flybys at Venus and Earth.</text>
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<text> These are enhanced versions of four views of the planet Venus taken by the Galileo's Solid State Imaging System at distances ranging from 1.4 to 2 million miles as the spacecraft receded from Venus. The pictures in the top row were taken about 4 and 5 days after closest approach, and those in the bottom row six days after closest approach, 2 hours apart. These show the faint Venusian cloud features especially clearly. A high-pass filter was applied to bring out broader global variations in tone. The bright polar hoods are a well-known feature of Venus. Of particular interest to planetary atmospheric scientists are the complex cloud patterns near the equator, in the vicinity of the bright subsolar point, where convection is most prevalent. The Galileo Project is managed for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory; its mission is to study Jupiter and its satellites and magnetosphere after multiple gravity-assist fIybys at Venus and Earth.</text>
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<text> The Galileo spacecraft approached Venus February 9, 1990 from the night side and passed across the sunlit hemisphere. Closest approach was about 10 p.m. PST, or about 1 a.m. EST February 10, at a distance of 16,000 kilometers (10,000 miles) above the cloudtops. For a day before and several days after closest approach Galileo scientists collected measurements of charged particles, dust and magnetism, infrared and ultraviolet spectral observations, data for infrared lower-atmosphere maps, and 81 camera images. Virtually all these data were tape-recorded on the spacecraft and played back in November 1990, because Galileo'scommunications were constrained during this early phase of flight. The 81 pictures of the upper clouds, the infrared images of lower-level cloud patterns (never observed before), various dataon solar wind interactions and other observations make up Galileo's Venus results.</text>
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<text>Venera 11: Launched September 9, 1978.Venera 12: Launched September 14, 1978. Veneras 11 and 12 were similar to Veneras 9 and 10. However, these spacecraft included only landing probes; the parent craft flew by Venus instead of entering orbit. The landers returned data but no surface images. Venera 13: Launched October 30, 1981. Venera 13 included the first onboard soil analysis of Venus. It revealed volcanic rock in the Phoebe plains region where it landed. The probed transmitted for 127 minutes from the surface including 8 color panoramas.Venera 14: Launched November 4, 1981. Venera 14 was very similar to Venera 13. It landed on a hill about 3000 km from Venera 13. The probe took panoramas and a soil sample. In addition, it detected disturbances which were probably quakes.Venera 15: Launched June 2, 1983.Venera 16: Launched June 7, 1983. Both Venera 15 and Venera 16 entered 24 hour orbits around Venus in order to radar map the surface. These missions provided over 600 km of tape containing data to analyze.</text>
<text>Two Pioneer Venus missions reached the planet. Pioneer Venus 1, also called Pioneer 12 or the Pioneer Venus Orbiter, was launched May 20, 1978. Pioneer Venus 2, also called Pioneer 13 or the Pioneer Venus Multiprobe, was launched August 8, 1978.Pioneer Venus 1 entered a 24 hour orbit about Venus December 4, 1978. It subsequently mapped 93% of the Venusian surface with radar. In addition, it returned 1000 cloud images within the first two years of its mission. By 1984, the Pioneer Venus 1 had completed a low map resolution of the surface. After much of its Venus goals were accomplished, Pioneer Venus 1 observed several comets and gamma ray bursts from its position orbiting the planet. The probe remained operational until it burned up in the atmosphere in October 1992.Pioneer Venus 2 was the last planetary launch until Magellan began its voyage toward Venus. Pioneer Venus 2 included four entry probes in addition to the main craft. The four probes which entered the atmosphere included a Sounder Probe as well as Day, Night, and North Probes. All four probes transmitted data during descent through the atmosphere, but only the Day probe transmitted from the surface.</text>
<text>Venera 9: Launched June 8, 1975. The Venera 9 and 10 spacecraft were redesigned after Veneras 6 and 7 in order to survive longer on the Venusian surface. Both of these Venera missions included both an orbiter and an atmospheric entry capsule. Venera 9 thus holds the honor of being the first Venus orbiter as well as recording the first image the surface. After a 75 minute descent through the atmosphere, the Venera 9 probe landed on Beta Regio and transmitted data for 53 minutes. It returned one panoramic view of the surface. The orbiter continued to function until March 22, 1976.Venera 10: Launched June 14, 1975. This Venus probe was designed exactly like Venera 9. The Venera 10 lander set down 2200 km away from the Venera 9 probe. Its single panorama revealed an older landscape than Beta Regio.</text>
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<text>Mariner 10 was launched on November 3, 1973. The ultimate goal of this mission was to be the first spacecraft to reachMercury. However, in order to reach Mercury Mariner 10 had to fly by Venus in 1974 for a gravity assist. Mariner thus became the first spacecraft to visit two planets. The probe passed only 5760 km from Venus; during its short time close to Venus Mariner 10 cameras photographed the Venusian atmosphere in ultraviolet light. These photographs helped scientists to determine that Venus' atmosphere rotates much faster than the solid body underneath: the atmosphere rotates about the rest of the planet in only four days.</text>
<text>Venera 4: Launched June 12, 1967. The Venera 4 entry capsule entered Venus' atmosphere October 18, 1967, one day before the Mariner 5 flyby. The capsule transmitted dataduring a 94 minute parachute descent before it was crushed by the atmospheric pressure 27 km above the surface. Venera 5: Launched January 5, 1969. Venera 5 was also an atmosphere probe; it entered on Venus' night side on March 16, 1969. It transmitted data for 53 minutes before also being crushed by the pressure. Venera 6: Launched January 10, 1969. The Venera 6 atmosphere capsule entered the dark side of Venus only 24 hours after the Venera 5 capsule. It descended to only 10 to12 km above the surface before being crushed. Venera 7: Launched August 17, 1970. The Venera 7 and 8 entry capsules were redesigned to withstand the conditions found by the earlier missions. The Venera 7 probe entered the atmosphere on December 15, 1970, but was able to relay only termperature data due to an error. It became the first craft to survive on the surface of Venus, where it found asurface temperature of approximately 475 C. Venera 8: Launched March 27,1972. On July 22, 1972 Venera 8 also landed on the surface of Venus. It transmitted from the planet for 50 minutes.</text>
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<text>The early Mariners were very small cylindrical probes, measuring only 3.04 m in length with a base diameter of 1.52 m.Mariner 1: Launched July 22, 1962. Mariner 1 failed only minutes after launch due to problems with the antenna and then an error in the on-board computer guidance software.Mariner 2: Launched August 27, 1962. Mariner 2 became the first successful planetary flyby mission. It travelled 109 days in order to have only 35 minutes for instrument scans of Venus. The probe passes 35,000 km from the planet; atmospheric studies showed little water and very large amounts of carbon dioxide.Mariner 5: Launched June 14, 1967. Mariner 5 measured the surface temperature of Venus and set an upper limit on the magnetic field strength as it flew by.</text>
<text>The Soviet Venera series of spacecraft were all intended tovisit Venus. Many of them, unlike early American missions, were designed to reach the surface. Over the 22 years of theprogram, 16 missions were launched.Venera 1: Launched February 12, 1961. Venera 1 is the first acknowledged Soviet planetary mission. However, ground controllers lost contact with the spacecraft only 15 days after launch.Venera 2: Launched November 12, 1965. Venera 2 passed 24,000 km from Venus but failed to return any data.Venera 3: Launched November 16, 1965. Venera 3 was the first lander capsule sent to Venus. It did become the first probe to reach a planet's surface, but it crashed March 1,1966 after losing contact during its descent.</text>
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<text>Galileo first viewed Venus close-up using an "optick tube" in 1610. In the eighteenth century, J.H. Schroeter confirmed the existence of an atmosphere. In the nineteenth century, imaginative speculation regarding possible life forms on Venus abounded, fueled by the fictional writings of Jules Verne. Illustrations of Venusian creatures appeared in many popular magazines of the day. No life, however, has ever been found on the planet.Because of the atmosphere, direct photography of Venus' surface is impossible. The only method of exploring the planet from Earth is by using radar. In recent years, the US and former USSR have sent many missions to explore Venus, including:The Mariner missions, begun in December 1962 by the US. The Venera missions, begun in February 1966 by the USSR. The Pioneer missions, begun in 1978 by the US. The Magellan missions, begun in 1989 by the US.</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This Magellan mosaic shows a portion of the Lada Terra highlands on Venus. The image, centered near 65 degrees south latitude and 14 degrees east longitude, covers an area about 1900 kilometers (1178 miles) north to south by about 600 kilometers (372 miles) east to west. The large, complex bright terrain trending from the lower left to the upper right of the image is tessera terrain, characterized by multiple sets of complexly intersecting ridges and troughs. This region of tessera has been heavily disrupted by crustal stresses and degraded by later lava flows. The dark smooth valleys extending to the northeast area about 15-50 kilometers (9-31 miles) across and have been filled by lavas. Near the center of the image within the tessera are two small semicircular depressions, separated by about 300 kilometers (186 miles), that may be ancient impact craters heavily modified by subsequent tessera disruption. To the north and south of the tessera lava flows have formed extensive plains regions, flooding the lower elevations of the edges of Lada Terra. At the top of the image is the southern rim of Eithinoha corona, a 500 kilometer (310 mile wide circular structure surrounded by concentric ridges thought to have formed as hot magma within the Venus crust migrated toward the surface, bowing up the crust and producing a smooth interior flooded by volcanic deposits and a ridged boundary. Large cracks or rifts are seen extending around the western edge of the corona and to the south, probably a direct result of the crustal stresses associated with the formation of the corona.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">his Magellan radar mosaic shows a portion of the Lada Terra highlands on Venus. The image, centered near 60 degrees south latitude and 15 degrees east longitude, covers an area about 1600 kilometers (970 miles) north-south by about 1,840 kilometers (1,100 miles) east-west. The large circular feature in the north-west of the image is the 500 kilometer (300 mile) diameter Eithinoha corona. Coronae are thought to have formed as hot magma within the Venus crust migrates towards the surface, causing up-bowing of the crust and formation of a ridged boundary surrounding a central region of volcanism. Several lava flows and small shields can be seen in the center of this structure. The bright lines extending away from the corona are cracks and rifts that are probably a direct result of the crustal stresses associated with the formation of the corona. The arch in the lower left of the image is the boundary of another large corona. Extensive volcanism has also occurred in the plains and gives the a patchy or mottled appearance. This plains-forming volcanism has flooded some surrounding higher material, such as the bright patches of tessera east and southeast of Eithinoha corona. Tessera consists of multiple sets of complex intersecting ridges and troughs and often forms large (100's of kilometers wide) continuous patches of elevated terrain. In this case, however, the tessera has been flooded and degraded by volcanic activity, suggesting that the tessera is one of the older features in this region. The narrow channel that can just be seen in the lower central portion of the image was probably formed by the flow of lava from within the tessera out to the surrounding plains to the southwest; lobate lava deposits can be seen at the end of the channel. Two well-preserved, 30-40 kilometer (18-24 mile) diameter impact craters are found in the north central plains and two small circular features in the south central tessera may be degraded impact craters.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text> This is a 225 meter per pixel Magellan radar image mosaic of Venus, centered at 47 degrees south latitude, 25 degrees east longitude in the Lada region. The scene is approximately 550 kilometers (341 miles) east-west by 630 kilometers (391 miles) north-south. The mosaic shows a system of east-trending radar-bright and dark lava flows encountering and breaching a north-trending ridge belt (left of center). Upon breaching the ridge belt, the lavas pool in a vast, radar-bright deposit (covering approximately 100,000 square kilometers [right side of image]). The source caldera for the lava flows, named Ammavaru, lies approximately 300 kilometers (186 miles) west of the scene.</text>
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<text> This is a 225 meter per pixel Magellan radar image mosaic of part of Venus, centered at 51 degrees south latitude, 21 degrees east longitude. The scene is approximately 200 kilometers (124 miles) east-west by 160 kilometers (99 miles) north-south. Running from west to east across the center of the image is part of a 1200 kilometer (744-mile) -long by 20-kilometer (12-mile) -wide lava channel in the Lada Terra region of Venus. Numerous streamlined structures within the channel attest to the very high temperature, very fluid lavas (resulting in both thermal and mechanical erosion) responsible for carving the channel.</text>
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<text> This beautiful impact crater in the Lada region of Venus was mapped by Magellan on October 11, 1990 during orbits 585 through 595. It is located at latitude 30.75 degrees south, longitude 20.20 degrees east. The crater, 67 kilometers (41.5 miles) in diameter, is distinctive because unusual, feather-like flows extend from the west and northwest sides of its rim. It's radar-bright floor has unique physical and electrical properties that are presently being evaluated by members of the Magellan Science Team. The crater is classified as a "peak-ring" crater because its floor has a concentric ring of hills, or peak-ring. In this crater, the peak-ring has been somewhat disrupted and is not the nearly perfect ring seen in some other large craters mapped by Magellan. A large, radar-bright. parabola-shaped deposit (not shown here) extends west from the crater for many hundreds of kilometers. It is thought to result from the interaction of fine crater ejecta with the upper atmospheric winds that are dominant in the equatorial region. Similar west-facing deposits observed by Magellan are associated with a dozen or so other bright-floored craters in the equatorial region. Stuart, the proposed name of this crater honors Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (1542-1587). Proposed names for all features on planetary bodies are provisional until formally adopted by the International Astronomical Union.</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This Magellan full-resolution mosaicked image shows an intermediate-sized volcano about 50 kilometers (31 miles) in diameter. This volcano is located in northern Lada Terra at 42.6 degrees south latitude, 27.9 degrees longitude. The volcano has a central caldera-like structure (depression) about 12 kilometers (7 miles) in diameter, surrounded by an asymmetrical ring of narrow flows that extend for 15-to-40 kilometers (9-to-25 miles). To the north and northeast, an apron of older lava flows underlies the annulus and extends up to an additional 60 kilometers (37 miles). The darker stripes within the mosaic are an artifact of the radar collection; these are individual orbits in which the spacecraft's antenna was pointing very slightly off-target.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text> Thirty-Six orbits of full-resolution data from the northern edge of central Alpha Regio are shown in this image. The image width is about 600 kilometers (375 miles). The bright lineated terrain is a series of troughs, ridges, and faults that are oriented in many directions. The lengths of these features generally range from 10 kilometers (6.3 miles) to 50 kilometers (31.3 miles). The topographic elevation within Alpha Regio varies over a range of 4 kilometers (2.5 miles). Local topographic lows, whose outlines are generally controlled by structures within the central region, are relatively radar-dark and filled with volcanic lavas. Source vents for this volcanism appear as bright spots within the smooth plains units. A distinct example of late-stage deformation of Alpha is the narrow band of southwest-northeast trending faults that disrupt older terrain between -20 degrees and -22 degrees latitude. Another interesting feature is the 35-kilometer (21.9-mile) diameter volcanic edifice located at the upper right of the image. The center of the volcano is a local topographic low and its western edge appears to be breached.</text>
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<text> This is a Magellan radar image mosaic of Venus centered on 30 degrees south, 9 degrees east. This scene is approximately 600 kilometers (360 miles) across and includes data from orbits 522 through 561, acquired on October 5-10, 1990. The bright terrain unit is the southeastern portion of Alpha Regio, a mountainous, highly fractured region. The complex fracture and deformation history of Alpha Regio is responsible for the intricate pattern of ridges and valleys. To the south and east these highlands have been flooded and embayed by dark, smooth plains material which apparently formed by extensive eruptions of basalt-like lavas. Several lava flow channels are visible at bottom center. Volcanically embayed remnants of Alpha Regio can be seen as isolated patches. Within these dark plains occur eight rounded "pancake'' domes up to 35 kilometers (20 miles) across and up to 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) high clustered at right center and at bottom right. Several of these domes have fractured and pitted summits. The shapes of these broad flat domes suggests they formed from the extrusion of lavas considerably more viscous (sticky) than those that formed the dark plains.</text>
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<text> This image of the eastern edge of Alpha Regio, 30 degrees south latitude, 11.8 east longitude, was acquired on November 7, 1990. It shows seven circular domical hills averaging 25 in kilometers (15 miles) in diameter and maximum heights of 750 meters (2475 feet). These features can be interpreted as viscous or thick eruptions of lava coming from a vent on the relatively level ground allowing the lava to flow in an even lateral pattern. The concentric and radial fracture pattern on their surfaces suggests if they are extrusive that a chilled outer layer formed then further intrusion in the interior stretched the surface. The domes may be analogous to volcanic domes on Earth. An alternative interpretation is that the domes are the result of shallow intrusions up-doming the surface layers. If they are intrusive, then magma withdrawal near the end of the eruptions then produced the fractures. The bright margins possibly indicate the presence of rock debris or talus at the slopes of the domes. Fractures on the surrounding plains are both older and younger than the domical hills. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 feet).</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> A portion of the eastern edge of Alpha Regio is displayed in this three-dimensional perspective view of the surface of Venus. The viewpoint is located at approximately 30 degrees south latitude, 11.8 degrees east longitude at an elevation of 2.4 kilometers (3.8 miles). The view is to the northeast at the center of an area containing seven circular dome-like hills. The average diameter of the hills is 25 kilometers (15-miles) with maximum heights of 750 meters (2,475 feet). Three of the hills are visible in the center of the image. Fractures on the surrounding plains are both older and younger than the domes. The surrounding plains are both older and younger than the domes. The hills may be the result of viscous or thick eruptions of lava coming from a vent on the relatively level ground, allowing the lava to flow in an even lateral pattern. The concentric and radial fracture patterns on their surfaces suggests that a chilled outer layer formed, then further intrusion in the interior stretched the surface. An alternative interpretation is that domes are the result of shallow intrusions of molten lava, causing the surface to rise. If they are intrusive, then magma withdrawal near the end of the eruptions produced the fractures. The bright margins possibly indicate the presence of rock debris or talus at the slopes of the domes. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 feet). Magellan's synthetic aperture radar is combined with radar altimetry to develop a three-dimensional map of the surface. A perspective view is then generated from the map. Simulated color and a process called radar-clinometry are used to enhance small-scale structures. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced by the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory by Eric De Jong, Jeff Hall, Myche McAuley, and Randy Kirk of the United States Geological Survey, and is a single frame from the movie released at the May 29, 1991 Magellan news conference.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This is a Magellan radar mosaic of the Lavinia region of Venus. The mosaic is centered at 45 degrees south latitude and 350 degrees longitude and covers a region 1,840 kilometers (1,100 miles) by 1,600 kilometers (970 miles). This topographically low region exhibits many diverse geologic features. The dominant structures are the tectonically deformed lineament belts which appear on this image as concentrated regions of parallel bright lines. These belts, which are slightly more elevated than the surrounding plains, consist of a series of ridges thought to be formed by the compression of the upper layer of the planet. Individual ridges within a belt are a few kilometers wide and tens of kilometers long. Small (less than 20 kilometers or 12 mile diameter) circular patches in the plains, such as those located in the upper left of the image, are believed to be small volcanic shields. The bright and dark lobes in the bottom center and middle right of the image are volcanic deposits that have flowed from source regions not seen in this image. The bottom flow complex is the northern part of Mylitta Fluctus, a region of vast outpourings of lava over 800 kilometers (480 miles) long. The northern part of this flow can be seen to surround a few ridges, suggesting that the ridge belts formed before the last eruptions.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This is a Magellan radar mosaic of the Lavinia region of Venus. The mosaic is centered at 45 degrees south latitude and 350 degrees longitude and covers a region 1840 kilometers (1100 miles) east-west and 1600 kilometers (970 miles) north-south. The north-south black bars are regions of missing data. This topographically low region exhibits many diverse geologic features. The dominant structures are the tectonically deformed lineament belts which appear on this image as concentrated regions of sub parallel bright lines. These belts, which are slightly more elevated than the surrounding plains, are interpreted to be composed of a series of ridges formed by the compression of the upper layer of the planet. Individual ridges within a belt are a few kilometers wide and tens of kilometers long. The medium-gray plains surrounding these ridge belts are interpreted to be volcanic in origin. Small (less than 20 kilometer or 12 mile diameter) circular patches in the plains, such as those located in the upper left of the image, are believed to be small volcanic shields. Other signs of volcanism are evident in the bottom center and middle right of the image. These bright and dark lobes of material are volcanic deposits that have flowed downhill from source regions not seen in this image. The bottom flow complex is the northern part of Mylitta Fluctus, a region of vast outpourings of lava over 800 kilometers (480 miles) long. The northern part of this flow can be seen to surround a few ridges, suggesting that the ridge belts formed before the eruption of Mylitta. The placement of the small (10-15 kilometer or 6-8 mile diameter) double impact crater on top of the ridges just to the left of Mylitta also supports the idea that the ridge belts are some of the older features in this region.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text> This is a Magellan full-resolution radar mosaic of the Lavinia region of Venus. The mosaic is centered at 50 degrees south latitude, 345 degrees east longitude, and spans 540 kilometers (338 miles) north to south and 900 kilometers (563 miles) east to west. As with all Magellan images acquired thus far, the illumination of the radar is from the left-hand side of the image. This area shows a diverse set of geologic features. The bright area running from the upper right to the lower left is interpreted as part of a belt of ridges, formed by compression and thickening or the upper layers of the planet. The areas between ridges suggest flooding by radar dark (and thus presumably) smoother lavas. The varied textures of the lavas can be seen in the mottled appearance of the plains which are cut by the ridges; brighter, rougher flows are also quite common. The particularly bright flows in the lower right corner are the northern extension of Mylitta Fluctus. The bright ridges adjacent to Mylitta Fluctus at the bottom center of the image also appear to have been affected by the volcanic activity. Some of these bright features have been interpreted as down-dropped areas roughly 5 kilometers (3 miles) wide. This would imply a region of extension where the crust has been pulled apart and thus was more easily flooded by the later lava flows. The thinner fractures running from the upper left seem to end at the ridge belt in the center of this mosaic. These thinner fractures are a continuation of a pattern seen throughout much of Lavinia and suggest a pattern of compression over a very large region. At the bottom of the image, overlying the ridges, is an impact crater 10-15 kilometers (6-10 miles) in diameter. The double or overlapped crater structure and asymmetrical ejecta pattern suggests that the incoming body broke up shortly before it hit, leaving closely-spaced craters. The placement of the crater on top of the ridges implies it is younger than the ridges, in fact, the crater may be one of the youngest features in this image.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">his Magellan full-resolution mosaic, centered at 55 degrees south, 354 east, shows the lava flows of Mylitta Fluctus in Lavinia Planitia (plains) on Venus. The entire flow complex spans over 800 kilometers (496 miles) from north to south and 380 kilometers (236 miles) from east to west. Individual flows range in width from less than 3 to 125 kilometers (about 2 to 78 miles). The flows originate from a 700 meter (2,300 feet) high volcano located on a possible rift zone outside the image to the south. The northern flank of the volcano is seen on the southern edge of the image and consists of a diffusely bright, fan-shaped area of relatively thin flows. The main flow field descends 1 kilometer (.62 miles) into the plains until it encounters more level ground, where individual flows pond and widen. A variety of flow features such as braided channels, levees, and roughness or texture changes within flows further our understanding of the conditions of the eruption and the nature of the lava itself. These flows are thought to have been very fluid and similar to lunar mare basalts and terrestrial flood basalts.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">his spectacular Magellan image is centered on 30 degrees south latitude, 135 degrees east longitude, spans 3500 kilometers (2170 miles) from east to west (left to right), and shows the near-circular trough of Artemis Chasma. Its circular shape and size (2100 km or 1302 miles in diameter) make Artemis the largest corona identified to date on the surface of Venus. Artemis could encompass most of the U.S. from the Front Range of the Rockies (near Denver) to the West Coast and is approximately twice the diameter of the next-smaller corona Heng-O. Coronae are characterized by a ring of concentric features surrounding an interior which typically contains fractures of varying orientations and volcanic features ranging from individual flows and small (<20 kilometer [12 mile]) volcanoes up to large (>100 kilometers [62 mile]) shield volcanoes. Artemis contains complex systems of fractures, numerous flows and small volcanoes, and at least two impact craters, the larger of which is located in the lower left (southwest) quadrant of the feature. The ring of fractures that defines Artemis forms a steep trough with raised rims approximately 120 kilometers (74 miles) wide and with as much as 2.5 kilometers (1.6 miles) of relief from the rim crest to the bottom of the trough. Most coronae are thought to be
related to up welling of hot material from the interior of Venus in the form of plumes or diapirs, and Artemis may be an extensional trough related to such an up welling event. Raised-rim troughs are most commonly found to be extensional features (those formed by forces which tend to pull apart the crust and lithosphere of a planet) but the unusual size and circularity of Artemis have led to the alternate suggestion that it may be a zone of intense compression and underthrusting, similar to oceanic subduction zones on Earth. Magellan scientists are currently examining this feature in detail to determine which, if either, of these hypotheses is correct.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text> First cycle image of a volcano on the plains between Artemis Chasma and Imdr Regio, 37.5¯ south latitude, 164.5¯ east longitude. Most recent effusions of lava produced the 100km dome-like structure with channels radiating from the volcano's center.</text>
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<text> This unusual Venusian volcano is located on the plains between Artemis Chasma and Imdr Regio at 37.5 degrees south latitude and 164.5 degrees east longitude. The dome structure with lava channels radiating from the volcanic center is about 100 kilometers (62 miles) across. This volcanic feature has been imaged by Magellan in both left-looking and right-looking modes. This image, from the second mapping cycle, was taken from the right. The volcano and its lava flows appear much the same in both images, but there are two important differences. In the left-looking image, west-facing slopes are brighter because they are tilted toward the radar. In this right-looking image, west-facing slopes are darker because they face away from the radar. Another difference is the image displacement caused by elevation differences as seen by the radar from the two sides. The top of a flow margin is displaced toward the radar relative to its base. The displacement is in the opposite direction in the two images. The sum of the two displacements is called parallax and can be used to estimate the height of features. The topographic relief that can be measured horizontally is much more precise than can be measured with the altimeter (about 10 kilometers, or 6 miles). Parallax measurements show that the thickness of the lobe of lava at the left-center edges of the image is variable but typically about 540 meters (1772 feet). This measurement conflicts with the altimetry measurement. The fan-shaped lava flow in the lower left is about 120 meters (394 feet) thick near its edge. Lava scarps on the east side of the complex are about 90 meters (295 feet) high.</text>
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<text> As the Magellan mission has progressed, areas of Venus have become accessible to the imaging radar system for a second look. During Magellan's second 243-day global mapping cycle, the spacecraft was rotated 180 degrees to view the surface from the opposite direction. This pair of mosaics show a region of Venus 575 kilometers (356 miles) by 460 kilometers (285 miles) as viewed in March, 1991 from the left or west (top image) and in November, 1991 from the right or east (bottom image). The image is centered at approximately 48 degrees south latitude, 230 degrees east longitude in the Imdr region of Venus. The incidence angle of the radar beam with the surface for both observations was approximately 25 degrees from vertical. The dark band near the right edge of the March image is due to a missing segment of data from one orbit. Much of the surface appears different in the two observations. Some of the darkest areas in the top image appear patchy and bright in the bottom image. In addition, east-west trending, alternating bright and dark bands in the lower left part of the bottom image are nearly or completely invisible in the top image. Magellan scientists are currently evaluating these apparent differences to understand their origin. Two theories have been developed. In one interpretation, the right patches in the November (bottom) image are reflections from facets of surface material that are oriented toward the east with a slope of approximately 25 degrees. This would lead to strong mirror-type reflections that are only visible from the east, the direction from which the surface was viewed in November. Under the second interpretation, the surface itself is proposed to have changed between the image acquisitions. It is suggested that materials on the surface had been rearranged sometime during the 8-month period, possibly by near-surface winds. Under this interpretation, the apparent brightening of the surface is explained as a result of the removal of loose material such as dust or sand, exposing a rougher, rockier surface that would appear brighter in a radar image. Magellan scientists hope to obtain a third view of this area in July, 1992, under a viewing geometry similar to the earlier data. This should provide the information necessary to distinguish between the "viewing direction" and "surface change" interpretations.</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This Magellan image, centered at 10 degrees north latitude, 188 east longitude shows the volcano Sapas Mons located in the broad equatorial rise known as Atla Regio (8 degrees north latitude, 188 degrees east longitude). Sapas Mons is about 400 kilometers (250 miles) across and rises 1.5 kilometers (0.9 miles) above the local terrain. It is about 4.5 km above the mean planetary radius. The flanks of the volcano are composed of numerous overlapping lava flows. The dark flows on the lower right are thought to be smoother than the brighter flows near the central part of the volcano. Many of the flows appear to have erupted along the flanks of the volcano, rather than from the summit. This type of flank eruption is common on large volcanoes on the Earth, such as the Hawaiian volcanoes. The summit area consists of a pair of flat-topped mesas, whose smooth tops give a relatively dark appearance in the radar image. Also seen near the summit are groups of pits, some as large as 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) across. These are thought to have formed when underground chambers of magma were drained through other subsurface tubes, leading to a collapse at the surface. A 20-kilometer (12.5-mile) diameter impact crater northeast of the volcano is partially buried by the lava flows. Little was known about the Atla Regio rise prior to Magellan. The new data, taken in February 1991, show the region to be composed of at least five large volcanic edifices such as Sapas Mons, which are commonly linked by complex systems of fractures or rift zones. By analogy with similar features on the Earth, Atla Regio is thought to result from upwellings of large volumes of molten rock from the interior of Venus known as "hot spots."</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text> This false-color Magellan image shows the volcano Sapas Mons, located in the broad equatorial rise known as Atla Regio (8 degrees north latitude, 188 degrees east longitude). The area shown is approximately 650 kilometers (400 miles) on a side. The volcano itself is about 400 kilometers (250 miles) across and rises 1.5 kilometers (0.9 miles) above the local terrain. It is about 4.5 km above the mean planetary radius. The flanks of the volcano are composed of numerous overlapping lava flows. The dark flows on the lower right are thought to be smoother than the brighter flows near the central part of the volcano. Many of the flows appear to have erupted along the flanks of the volcano, rather than from the summit. This type of flank eruption is common on large volcanoes on the Earth, such as the Hawaiian volcanoes. The summit area consists of a pair of flat-topped mesas, whose smooth tops give a relatively dark appearance in the radar image. Also seen near the summit are groups of pits, some as large as 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) across. These are thought to have formed when underground chambers of magma were drained through other subsurface tubes, leading to a collapse at the surface. A 20-kilometer (12.5-mile) diameter impact crater northeast of the volcano is partially buried by the lava flows. Little was known about the Atla Regio rise prior to Magellan. The new data, taken in February 1991, show the region to be composed of at least five large volcanic edifices such as Sapas Mons, which are commonly linked by complex systems of fractures or rift zones. By analogy with similar features on the Earth, Atla Regio is thought to result from upwellings of large volumes of molten rock from the interior of Venus known as "hot spots."Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</text>
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<text> Sapas Mons is displayed in the center of this computer-generated three-dimensional perspective view of the surface of Venus. The viewpoint is located 527 kilometers (327 miles) northwest of Sapas Mons at an elevation of 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) above the terrain. Lava flows extend for hundreds of kilometers across the fractured plains shown in the foreground to the base of Sapas Mons. The view is to the southeast with Sapas Mons appearing at the center with Maat Mons located in the background on the horizon. Sapas Mons, a volcano 400 kilometers (248 miles) across and l.5 kilometers (O.9 miles) high is located at approximately 8 degrees north latitude, l88 degrees eastlongitude, on the western edge of Atla Regio. Its peak sits at an elevation of 4.5 kilometers (2.8 miles) above the planet's mean elevation. Sapas Mons is named for a Phoenician goddess. The vertical scale in this Perspective has been exaggerated 10 times. Rays cast in a computer intersect the surface to create a three-dimensional perspective view. Simulated color and a digital elevation map developed by the U.S. Geological Survey are used to enhance small-scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced by the Solar System Visualization project and the Magellan Science team at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory and is a single frame from a video released at the April 22, 1992 news conference.</text>
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<text> Maat Mons is displayed in this three-dimensional perspective view of the surface of Venus. The viewpoint is located 560 kilometers (347 miles) north of Maat Mons at an elevation of 1.7 kilometers (1 mile) above the terrain. Lava flows extend for hundreds of kilometers across the fractured plains shown in the foreground, to the base of Maat Mons. The view is to the south with Maat Mons appearing at the center of the image on the horizon. Maat Mons, an 8 kilometer (5 mile) high volcano, is located at approximately 0.9 degrees north latitude, 194.5 degrees east longitude. Magellan synthetic aperture radar data is combined with radar altimetry to develop a three-dimensional map of the surface. Rays cast in a computer intersect the surface to create a three-dimensional perspective view. Simulated color and a digital elevation map developed by the U.S. Geological Survey, are used to enhance small-scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory.</text>
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<text> Maat Mons is displayed in this computer generated three-dimensional perspective of the surface of Venus. The viewpoint is located 634 kilometers (393 miles) north of Maat Mons at an elevation of 3 kilometers (2 miles) above the terrain. Lava flows extend for hundreds of kilometers across the fractured plains shown in the foreground, to the base of Maat Mons. The view is to the south with the volcano Maat Mons appearing at the center of the image on the horizon and rising to almost 5 kilometers (3 miles) above the surrounding terrain. Maat Mons is located at approximately 0.9 degrees north latitude, 194.5 degrees east longitude with a peak that ascends to 8 kilometers (5 miles) above the mean surface. Maat Mons is named for an Egyptian Goddess of truth and justice. Magellan syntectic aperture radar data is combined with radar altimetry to develop a three-dimensional map of the surface. The vertical scale in this perspective has been exaggerated 10 times. Rays cast in a computer intersect the surface to crate a three-dimensional perspective view. Simulated color and a digital elevation map developed by the U.S. Geological Survey are used to enhance small-scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced by the Solar System Visualization project and the Magellan Science team at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory and is a single frame from a video released at the April 22, 1992 news conference.</text>
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<text>This map shows the topography of a portion of the Thetis region of Venus, using data acquired by the Magellan altimetry instrument. Colors represent the planetary radius, measured in kilometers. The 10-degree grid spacing is equivalent to approximately 1050 kilometers (651 miles). The east-west trending troughs near the center of the map are Diana and Dali Chasmata. These valleys are up to 4 kilometers (3 miles) deep in places. Slopes as steep as 25 degrees, extending over several kilometers, are found at the edges of the valleys. The existence of such dramatic relief suggests that active tectonic forces may be dynamically supporting the topography.</text>
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<text> A perspective view of the topography Dali (to left) and Diana (to right) towards the southwest at 15 degrees south latitude, just to the east of Aphrodite Terra on Venus. Vertical exaggeration is about twenty-to-one. These valleys are 4 kilometers (3 miles) deep and about 65 kilometers (40 miles) wide, with walls sloping down at angles as steep as 25 degrees. The data were obtained by Magellan's altimetry.</text>
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<text> This full-resolution radar mosaic from Magellan centered at 13.5 degrees South latitude, 161 degrees longitude shows a 5.5 kilometer (3.3 mile) high scarp north of Dali Chasma, in the Thetis Region of Venus.The bright region in the bottom one-third of the mosaic, is elevated above the darker material to the north (and separated from it by the scarp). At least 3 landslides from the scarp can be identified in the mosaic, along with the head scarps from which they came. These are the hummocky surfaces at center, just left of center, and just above right center. These landslides range up to 30 kilometers (18 miles) from the base of the scarp.</text>
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<text> This full-resolution mosaicked image is part of Ovda Regio, which forms the western part of Aphrodite Terra. The image is centered at 5o south latitude and 70o east longitude. The image includes an area 600 km (370 miles) wide and 545 km (335 miles) from north to south. Several events are recorded by the structures displayed in this image. The oldest events were the formation of irregular broad domes and ridges on the order of 20 km (12 miles) wide and of the small-scale structure on the domes and ridges. The valleys between these ridges then were flooded by dark lava flows. An extensive fracture system radial to the circular feature at the bottom of the image then cut across the older features. An impact crater 60 km (37 miles) across is also younger than the flood lava. Full-resolution images such as this are providing clues to the origin of Aphrodite Terra, and therefore important information about Venus tectonics.</text>
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<text> This Magellan image shows part of the northern boundary of Ovda Regio, one of the large highlands ringing the equator of Venus. The scene consists largely of low-relief, rounded linear ridges. These ridges, 8-15 kilometers (5-9 miles) in width and 30-60 kilometers (20-40 miles) long, lie mostly along a 100-200 kilometer (60-120 mile) wide slope where the elevation drops 3 kilometers (2 miles) from Ovda Regio to the surrounding plains. Some of the ridges have been cut at right angles by extension fractures. Dark material, either lava or windblown dirt, fills the region between the ridges. The curvilinear, banded nature of these ridges suggests that crustal shortening, roughly oriented north-south is largely responsible for their formation. Such crustal shortening was unexpected by Magellan scientists, who believed that Ovda Regio, a likely site of hot upwelling from the interior of Venus, should be dominated by volcanism and crustal extension. This image, centered approximately at 1 N 81 E, measures 300 kilometers (190 miles) by 225 kilometers (140 miles) and was acquired by Magellan in November 1990.</text>
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<text>This computer-generated perspective view of the highland of Ovda Regio on Venus shows Magellan radar data superimposed on topography. This scene is made up of a compilation of radar images collected during a11 three of Magellan's eight-month mapping cycles. Simulated color, based on color images obtained by the Venera 14 and 15 landers, Is used to enhance small-scale structure. The view is from the northeast looking to the southwest and vertical exaggeration is 22.5 times. Exaggeration of relief is a common tool scientists use to enhance relationships between structure (for example, faults and fractures) and topography. Ovda Regio covers an area 6,300 kilometers by 2,100 kilometers (3,900 miles by 1,300 miles), rises over 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) above the surrounding plains, and is made up of complex ridge terrain. also know as tessera. At the bottom right of this scene, along the northern edge of the highland, are a series of east-west trending ridges that are interpreted to have formed by northwest--southeast-oriented compression. In several places the ridges are flooded by radar-dark (smooth) lava flows, indicating that volcanic activity postdates the formation of the ridges. The terrain in the interior of Ovda forms a chaotic pattern indicating multiple directions of deformation. The Magellan mission is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for NASA's Office of Space Science.</text>
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<text>This computer-generated perspective view of the highland of Ovda Regio on Venus shows Magellan radar data superimposed on topography. This scene is made up of a compilation of radar images collected during all three of Magellan's eight-month mapping cycles. Simulated color, based on color images obtained by the Venera 14 and 15 landers, is used to enhance small-scale structure. The view is from west to east and vertical exaggeration is 22.5 times. Exaggeration of relief is a common tool scientists use to enhance relationships between structure (for example, faults and fractures) and topography. Ovda Regio covers an area 6,300 kilometers by 2,100 kilometers (3,900 miles by 1,300 miles), rises over 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) above the surrounding plains, and is made up of complex ridge terrain, also know as tessera. Located in the foreground is a 400 kilometer by 250 kilometer (250 mile by 155 mile) oval depression that contains abundant faults and fractures. This feature is surrounded by radar-dark lava flows and is a site of volcanism and extension. The dark volcanic plains flood surrounding complex ridge terrain indicating that lava emplacement postdates the tesserae. The enhanced radar brightness of the complex ridge terrain in the background is due to both roughness on the scale of the radar wavelength and the presence of a metallic mineral in the surface. The Magellan mission is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for NASA's Office of Space Science.</text>
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<text> This complex crater in the Navka region of Venus was mapped by Magellan on September 26-27, 1990 during orbits 459 and 460. The crater has a diameter of 22 kilometers (13.6 miles) and is located at latitude 5.75 degrees south, longitude 349.6 degrees east. It has the terraced walls, flat radar-dark floor, and central peak that are characteristic of craters classified as "complex." The central peak on its floor is unusually large. Flow-like deposits extend beyond the limits of the coarser rim deposits on its west and southwest. Like about half of the craters mapped by Magellan to date, it is surrounded by a local, radar-dark halo. Buck, the proposed name for this crater honors Pearl S. Buck, American author (1892-1973). Proposed names for all features on planetary bodies are provisional until formally adopted by the International Astronomical Union.</text>
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<text>The Magellan spacecraft has observed remnant landslide deposits apparently resulting from the collapse of volcanic structures- This Magellan radar image is centered about 25.4 degrees south latitude and 308 degrees east longitude in the southwestern Navka Region of Venus. The image shows a 17.4 kilometer (10.8 mile) diameter volcanic dome on the plains- The dome is approximately 1.86 kilometers (1.2 mile) in height and has a slope of about 23 degrees. The northwest and northeast flanks of the dome have collapsed to form landslides that have deposited debris on the plains. The image shows an area 110 kilometers (68 miles) across and 100 kilometers (62 miles) in length.</text>
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<text>Magellan radar image of part of the Phoebe region of Venus. Mosaic of part of revs 146 and 147 acquired in the first radar test on August 16, 1990. The image is located at 291 degrees E. longitude, 19 degrees south latitude. This image is 30 km (19.6 miles) wide and 76 km (47 miles) high. On the basis of Pioneer Venus and Arecibo data, it is known that two major rift zones occur in Southern Phoebe Regio and that they terminate at about 20-25S latitude about 2000 km apart. This image is just north of the southern end of the western rift zone. This region is characterized by a complex geologic history involving both volcanism and faulting. Several of the geologic units show distinctive overlapping or cross-cutting relationships that permit identification and separation of geologic events and construction of the geologic history of the region. The oldest rocks in this image form the complexly deformed and faulted, radar bright, hilly terrain in the northern half. Faults of a variety of orientations are observed. A narrow fault trough (about one-half to one km wide) is seen crossing the bright hills near the lower part in the middle of the image. This is one of the youngest faults in the faulted, hilly unit as it is seen to cut across many other structures. The fault trough in turn appears to be embayed and flooded by the darker plains that appear in the south half of the image. These plains are interpreted to be of volcanic origin. The dark plains may be formed of a complex of overlapping volcanic flows. For example, the somewhat darker region of plains in the lower left (SW) corner of the image may be a different age series of plains forming volcanic lava flows. Finally, the narrow bright line crossing the image in its lower part is interpreted to be a fault which crosscuts both plains units and is thus the youngest event in the sequence. These relationships show tile interplay of volcanic activity and faulting that have influenced this region and a number of other regions on Venus.</text>
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<text>Magellan radar image of part of the Phoebe region of Venus. Mosaic of part of revs 146 and 147 acquired in the first test on August 16, 1990. The image is located at 291 degrees longitude, 20 degrees south latitude. This image is 30 km (? miles) wide and 76 km (47 miles) high. This Magellan image shows a broad, up to 17 km (11 miles) wide, radar-bright, lobate lava flow that extends 25 km NW across the image strip. The volcanic flow appears bright in this image because it is rough on a scale of a few centimeters to a few meters (a few inches to a few yards), much like lava flows on Earth that are called by geologists, aa (ah-ah), a Hawaiian word that probably mimics the sound the ancients uttered while running barefoot over the rough, jagged surface. It is located near the SE flank of Phoebe Regio and has flowed into local topographic lows. This lava flow has flooded the darker plains and appears to have buried N-S trending lineaments that cut the darker material. No obvious volcanic sources are visible in this image. The flow has a markedly uniform surface texture in contrast to the more mottled texture of adjacent deposits; this suggests it may represent the most recent in a series of eruptions that subsequently have been obscured. To the north and south are NW trending graben that may belong to the system of fractures associated with Phoebe Regio.</text>
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<text>Magellan radar image of part of the Phoebe region of Venus. Mosaic of part of revs 146 and 147 acquired in the first radar test on August 16, 1990. The image is located at 292 degrees E. longitude, 24 degrees south latitude. This image is 30 km (19.6 miles) wide and 70 km (43.5 miles) high.This Magellan radar image of Venus shows an area to the southeast of Phoebe Regio, an upland region characterized by major rift zones. The irregular-shaped depressions near the middle of the image are interpreted as volcanic calderas, the larger of which is 8 x 3.6 km (5 x 2.2 miles) across. Unlike impact craters, volcanic calderas are not usually circular in map view.Irregular calderas such as these occur on basaltic shield volcanoes on Earth, such as those in Hawaii. The radar illumination comes from the left causing the caldera walls that face the spacecraft to be brightly illuminated. Another factor that makes the walls bright is that the walls may be rough and blocky.</text>
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<text> This Magellan mosaic centered at 12.5 degrees south latitude, 261 degrees east longitude, shows an unnamed volcano that straddles a narrow, angular fracture system extending southeastward from Phoebe Regio, a highland tessera, or tile-appearing, region of Venus. The image, which shows an area approximately 587 kilometers (364 miles) on a side, is a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) backscatter image combined with a color radio-thermal emission (emissivity) image. The red corresponds to a high emissivity, blue to a low emissivity. The emissivity, which is a measure of the electrical properties of surface materials, is an important clue for understanding surface composition. While many Magellan images display just the radar backscatter in order to obtain information about the shape and roughness of features, there are other important data sets including the surface topography obtained from the Magellan altimeter and the emissivity. Information to derive emissivity is recorded when Magellan's radar antenna ceases to send signals to the surface and instead listens to the radio waves naturally emitted from the surface. This volcano exhibits what scientists have noted to be a widespread phenomenon on Venus -- the occurrence of lower emissivities at higher altitudes. The summit of the volcano, which is about 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) in height, displays the lowest emissivity, while the emissivity becomes progressively greater toward the lower elevations. The presence of minerals such as pyrrohtite or pyrite may explain the low emissivities in some cases because of their electrical properties and their stability at the temperatures and pressures found at high altitudes on Venus. This image was produced at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory.</text>
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<text> Image of two large volcanoes, Sif (left) and Gula (right), located in Eistla region. Superimposed colors represent planetary topography, or radius, measured from the center of the planet in kilometers.</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This is a Magellan radar mosaic of the Navka region of Venus. The mosaic is centered at 15 degrees north latitude and 352 degrees longitude and covers a region 1840 kilometers (1100 miles) east-west and 1600 kilometers (970 miles) north-south. The north-south black bars are regions of missing data. The southern halves of two large volcanoes are located at the top of the image. Sif Mons, at the top-center, is approximately 500 kilometers (300 miles) across and rises about 2.5 kilometers (1.5 miles) above the average elevation of the planet's surface. The 30 kilometer (18 mile) circular region (called a caldera) is the probable source of the many lobate lava flows that radiate downhill. A ten kilometer (6 mile) diameter impact crater surrounded by a dark halo is located on the slopes of the volcano 225 kilometers (135 miles) southwest of the central caldera. To the east of Sif is Gula Mons, a 550 kilometer (330 mile) diameter volcano that is 3.5 kilometers (2.1 miles) high. The summit of Gula Mons is composed of 2 calderas joined by a belt of linear deformation. The southwestern of these 2 calderas is the bright circular region in the upper right of the image. As at Sif Mons, bright and dark flows radiate downhill from the volcano. The concentrated region of bright lines southeast of Gula is the near end of a rift zone that intersects Gula at the caldera. Many other bright linear features cross the mottled plains that surround the volcanoes. In the center of the image is a 40 kilometer (24 mile) diameter impact crater. The bright halo surrounding the crater may be a fairly thin deposit, since the fractures on the underlying plains can still be seen. These plains are probably volcanic in origin; the boundaries between different areas of plains often have a flow-like morphology. There is another smaller volcano in the lower left of the image, emphasizing that this region of Venus has been very active volcanically.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text> Multiple lava flows off the northern slope of Sif Mons, a shield volcano located approximately 22 degrees north latitude, 352 degrees east longitude, on the northwestern end of Eistla Regio are seen in his Magellan image mosaic. The image is about 600 kilometers (360 miles) across. Descending two to three kilometers (1.2-1.8 miles) into the finger-like plains, the flows form patterns which reveal the topography and some geologic features. The flows bend in the direction of the steepest slope, turning more than 90 degrees on the plains where they eventually pond. The long flow in the center flowed around small shield volcanoes but was thin enough not to cover their peaks. Radar-bright lineations associated with the long flow to the east show where lava has been diverted into troughs. The darkness around the impact crater on the lower left side of the is characteristic of either pulverization during the initial interaction with the impacting body and the surface or the settling of particles thrown into the atmosphere after impact.</text>
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<text> Gula Mons is displayed in this computer-simulated view of the surface of Venus. The viewpoint is located 110 kilometers (68 miles) southwest of Gula Mons at the same elevation as the summit, 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) above Eistla Regio. Lava flows extend for hundreds of kilometers across the fractured plains. The view is to the northeast with Gula Mons appearing at the center of the image. Gula Mons, a 3 kilometer (1.9 mile) high volcano, is located at approximately 22 degrees north latitude, 359 degrees east longitude in western Eistla Regio. Magellan synthetic aperture radar data is combined with radar altimetry to produce a three-dimensional map of the surface. Rays cast in a computer intersect the surface to create a three-dimensional perspective view. Simulated color and a digital elevation map developed by the U.S. Geological Survey are used to enhance small-scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced by the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory and is a single frame from a video released at the March 5, 1991, JPL news conference.</text>
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<text> A portion of Western Eistla Regio is displayed in this three dimensional perspective view of the surface of Venus. The viewpoint is located 1,100 kilometers (682 miles) northeast of Gula Mons at an elevation of 7.5 kilometers (4.6 miles). Lava flows extend for hundreds of kilometers across the fractured plains shown in the foreground, to the base of Gula Mons. We are looking to the southwest with Gula Mons appearing at the left just below the horizon. Gula Mons, a 3 kilometer (1.86 mile) high volcano, is located at approximately 22 degrees north latitude, 359 degrees east longitude. Sif Mons, a volcano. with a diameter of 300 kilometers (180 miles) and a height of 2 kilometers (1.2 miles), appears to the right of Gula Mons. The distance between Sif Mons and Gula Mons is approximately 730 kilometers (453 miles). Magellan synthetic aperture radar data is combined with radar altimetry to develop a three-dimensional map of the surface. Ray tracing -- rays as if from a light source are cast in a computer to intersect the surface -- simulate a perspective view. Simulated color and a digital elevation map developed by Randy Kirk of the U.S. Geological Survey, are used to enhance small scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory by Eric De Jong, Jeff Hall, and Myche McAuley, and is a single frame a video released at a March 5, 1991, JPL news conference.</text>
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<text> A portion of Western Eistla Regio is displayed in this three dimensional perspective view of the surface of Venus. The viewpoint is located 1,310 kilometers (812 miles) southwest of Gula Mons at an elevation of 0.78 kilometers (0.48 mile). The view is to the northeast with Gula Mons appearing on the horizon. Gula Mons, a 3 kilometer (1.86 mile) high volcano, is located at approximately 22 degrees north latitude, 359 degrees east longitude. The impact crater Cunitz, named for the astronomer and mathematician Maria Cunitz, is visible in the center of the image. The crater is 48.5 kilometers (30 miles) in diameter and is 215 kilometers (133 miles) from the viewer's position. Magellan synthetic aperture radar data is combined with radar altimetry to develop a three-dimensional map of the surface. Rays cast in a computer intersect the surface to create a three-dimensional perspective view. Simulated color and a digital elevation map developed by the U.S. Geological Survey are used to enhance small-scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory and is a single frame from a video released at the March 5, 1991, JPL news conference.</text>
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<text> This Magellan image of the Lakshmi Region of Venus was taken on September 15, 1990. The image is a mosaic of orbits 376 and 377 and shows features on the surface of Venus at 36 north latitude, 330 east longitude. The image measures 41 x 77 kilometers (25 x 48 miles) and shows the dark, randomly fractured plains of Sedna Planitia. The circular feature in the center of the image is a relatively flat-topped dome, 13 x 20 kilometers (8 x 12.5 miles) in diameter at the top and 28 by at least 35 kilometers (17 x 22 miles) in diameter at the base. The top of the dome is highly fractured in a radial pattern; wider troughs extend downslope on the north and southeast flanks. The fractures in the plains deflect in a circumferential pattern around the base of the dome. A similar pattern to the west of the dome indicates the presence of a second dome to the left, off the image. Since no lava flows are observed to emanate from the dome, this feature may be a failed volcano, known as a "cryptodome." Cryptodomes form on Earth when molten rock rises but is unable to break through to the surface as lava flows. The overlying rock is bowed up, possibly fracturing the surface and forming a flat-topped dome.</text>
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<text> This Magellan image shows a radar dark lava flow to the southeast of Navka Planitia. The image was obtained on spacecraft orbit 377 and lies on 3.5 degrees north latitude, 335 degrees longitude. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 miles). This image is about 40 kilometers (24 miles) wide and about 80 kilometers (48 miles) long. The flow is over 30 kilometers (18 miles) long and 1-2 kilometers (0.6-1.2 miles) wide and appears to have been formed from relatively fluid lava. Magellan images show a wide variety of volcanic land forms indicating different styles of volcanism.</text>
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<text>Devana Chasma at 6 degrees north latitude, 288 degrees east longitude. Steep walled fault troughs called graben indicate that this region is being pulled apart forming a complex rift valley extending south from Beta Regio. Volcanic flows appear to cover the flat floors of tile graben in several places.</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This image is a composite of 30 orbits recorded by the Magellan spacecraft in April 1991 superimposed on Pioneer Venus topography (the small gray triangular wedge in the upper right hand corner of the image). This image, with a resolution of 120 meters (370 feet), centered on the equator at 288 degrees east longitude and shows the complex deformation associated with faulting in Devana Chasma. These faults have a relatively uniform spacing of approximately 5 kilometers (3 miles) and are part of 100 to 180 kilometer (60 to 108 miles) wide zone of deformation. A group of bright (rough) lava flows 70 kilometers by 280 kilometers (42 by 168 miles) flow down the raised west flanks of the Devana Chasma rift valley. The new Magellan data reveal remarkable detail and complexity in this deformed terrain. Analysis of images from areas such as Devana Chasma is expected to improve our understanding of the global tectonic forces affecting Venus.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text> This Magellan full resolution radar image is centered at 65 degrees north latitude, zero degrees east longitude, along the eastern edge of Lakshmi Planum and the western edge of Maxwell Montes. The plains of Lakshmi are made up of radar-dark, homogeneous, smooth lava flows. Located near the center of the image is a feature previously mapped as tessera made up of intersecting 1- to 2-km (0.6- to 1.2 miles) wide graben. The abrupt termination of dark plains against this feature indicates that it has been partially covered by lava. Additional blocks of tessera are located along the left-hand edge of the image. A series of linear parallel troughs are located along the southern edge of the image. These features, 60- to 120-km (36- to 72-miles) long and 10- to 40-km (6- to 24-miles) wide are interpreted as graben. Located along the right hand part of the image is Maxwell Montes, the highest mountain on the planet, rising to an elevation of 11.5 km (7 miles) and is part of a series of mountain belts surrounding Lakshmi Planum. The western edge of Maxwell shown in this image rises sharply, 5.0 km (3.0 miles), above the adjacent plains in Lakshmi Planum. Maxwell is made up of parallel ridges 2 to 7 km (1.2 to 4.2 miles) apart and is interpreted to have formed by compressional tectonics. The image is 300 kilometers (180 miles) wide.</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This Magellan full-resolution image shows Maxwell Montes, and is centered at 65 degrees north latitude and 6 degrees east longitude. Maxwell is the highest mountain on Venus, rising almost 11 kilometers (6.8 miles) above mean planetary radius. The western slopes (on the left) are very steep, whereas the eastern slopes descend gradually into Fortuna Tessera. The broad ridges and valleys making up Maxwell and Fortuna suggest that the topography resulted from compression. Most of Maxwell Montes has a very bright radar return; such bright returns are common on Venus at high altitudes. This phenomenon is thought to result from the presence of a radar reflective mineral such as pyrite. Interestingly, the highest area on Maxwell is less bright than the surrounding slopes, suggesting that the phenomenon is limited to a particular elevation range. The pressure, temperature, and chemistry of the atmosphere vary with altitude; the material responsible for the bright return probably is only stable in a particular range of atmospheric conditions and therefore a particular elevation range. The prominent circular feature in eastern Maxwell is Cleopatra. Cleopatra is a double-ring impact basin about 100 kilometers (62 miles) in diameter and 2.5 kilometers (1.5 miles) deep. A steep-walled, winding channel a few kilometers wide breaks through the rough terrain surrounding the crater rim. A large amount of lava originating in Cleopatra flowed through this channel and filled valleys in Fortuna Tessera. Cleopatra is superimposed on the structures of Maxwell Montes and appears to be undeformed, indicating that Cleopatra is relatively young.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space Administration Pasadena, California 91109</span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text> This image is a mosaic of Magellan data over the Lakshmi region of Venus. The image is centered at about 66 degrees north latitude and 10 degrees east longitude. The prominent circular feature in the image is the crater Cleopatra, located on the eastern slopes of Maxwell Montes, the highest mountain range on Venus. Cleopatra is about 100 km (60 miles) across and 2.5 km (1.5 miles) deep. In previous data sets, scientists were unable to determine whether Cleopatra was an impact crater or a volcanic caldera. High-resolution Magellan data indicates that Cleopatra is a double-ring impact basin, similar to double-ring impact basins identified on the Moon, Mars and Mercury. The inner and outer rings have a hummocky appearance typical of very large impact craters. On the eastern edge of Cleopatra, a flow can be seen that has breached the wall of the crater and flowed downhill to surround the ridges to the east. This flow may have been produced by melting of rocks due to the impact or by volcanism triggered by the impact. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 feet).</text>
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<text> This Magellan full-resolution mosaic shows an area in Ishtar Terra on Venus, centered at 65 degrees north latitude and 6 degrees east longitude. The prominent circular feature is Cleopatra, an impact crater, 100 kilometers (62 miles) in diameter. Cleopatra lies on the eastern slopes of Maxwell Montes, the tallest mountain range on Venus at almost 11 kilometers (6.8 miles) above the mean planetary radius. The western slopes of Maxwell Montes are very steep while the eastern slopes descend gradually. The radar-bright return throughout most: of the image is present on Venus at high altitudes. This phenomenon is thought to indicate the presence of a radar reflective mineral such as pyrite which is stable at the pressure and temperature found at higher altitudes. The ridges and troughs throughout the image formed from compression of the surface. It was not determined whether Cleopatra was a volcanic or impact crater until high-resolution Magellan data was received. The rough, surrounding ejecta is visible in Magellan images, distinguishing it as a large double-ring impact basin similar to those found on other planetary bodies. Lava from impact melt or volcanism triggered by the impact breached the crater rim and filled the troughs in the upper right-hand corner of the image.</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This Magellan full-resolution image shows the northern part of the Akna Montes (Mountains) of Venus. The Akna range is a north-south trending ridge belt that forms the western border of the elevated smooth plateau of Lakshmi Planum (plains). The Lakshmi plateau plains are formed by extensive volcanic eruptions and are bounded by mountain chains on all sides. The plains appear to be deformed near the mountains. This suggests that some of the mountain building activity occurred after the plains formed. An impact crater (Official International Astronomical Union name "Wanda," mapped first by the Soviet Venera 15/16 mission in 1984 at low resolution) with a diameter of 22 kilometers (14 miles) has formed by the impact of an asteroid into the Akna mountains. The crater has a rugged central peak and a smooth radar-dark floor, probably volcanic material. The crater does not appear to be much deformed by later crustal movement that uplifted the mountains and crumpled the plains. Material from the adjacent mountain ridge to the west, however, appears to have collapsed into the crater. Small pits seen to the north of the crater may be volcanic collapse pits a few kilometers across (1-2 miles). The ridge of the Akna mountains immediately to the west of the crater is 8 kilometers wide (5 miles). The area in the image is approximately 200 kilometers long and 125 kilometers wide (130 by 80 miles). This area is centered at 71.5 degrees north latitude, 324 degrees east longitude. The resolution of the Magellan radar system is 120 meters (400 feet). At this latitude, the radar views the surface from an angle of 23 degrees off vertical, creating a perspective as though a viewer were looking at the scene from the right (east) at an angle of 23 degrees above the surface.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This Magellan full-resolution mosaic of Venus centered at 60.3 degrees north, 337.5 degrees east shows the northeast portion of Danu Montes (mountains) where it borders on Lakshmi Planum (plains). Rising almost two kilometers (1.2 miles) above the adjacent plains, the mountains appear as ridges and troughs, implying crustal shortening by compressional forces. The deep gorges and valleys separate continuous ridges of the folded terrain, suggesting that an episode of expansion split apart the surface following the compression. The largest and most prominent chasm in the image spans a width of 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) with a length of 75 kilometers (46.5). There are also round and elongate pits which are thought to be areas where the surface has collapsed in -- perhaps where magma (subsurface molten rock) was emplaced close to the surface. In some instances lava flows from these depressions into channels extending more than 75 kilometers (46.5 miles) out onto the plains. A possible theory on the history of this region suggests that after the crust came together under compression, it heated up, became weaker, and slumped into the plains. Some evidence for this can be drawn from analogies on Earth such as the Himalayas where gravity has forced mountains to split apart under their own weight.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text> This full-resolution radar image mosaic of part of Venus is centered on 75 degrees north latitude, 332 degrees east longitude. Parts of orbits 376 through 444 are included in this area. which is 310 kilometers (190 miles) wide and 550 kilometers (339 miles) north to south. The radar-bright mountains, called Freyja Montes, are probably formed mostly as a result of compressional folding and faulting of rock units. The smooth, dark plains to the south are the northernmost extent of Lakshmi Planum, a region believed covered by extensive volcanism, although several compressional fault ridges can be seen extending southward from Freyja Montes. A sinuous lava channel is seen running along the floors of some of the valleys between the mountains belts at the top of the image, indicating that these valleys are partially flooded by lavas.</text>
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<text> This image shows a 125 by 125 km region on the eastern flanks of Freyja Montes, in Ishtar Terra, centered on 72 degrees north, 342 degrees east. The image is dominated by a highly fractured dome, approximately 70 by 125 km (42 by 75 miles), that appears to delineate a local region of uplift and extension within the regionally compressional mountain belt. The "turtle-back" appearance of the dome is the result of two sets of intersecting fractures; one trending roughly north to north northeast and the other west to west northwest. Individual scarps appear to define graben, commonly 1 by 5 km (0.6 by 3.0 miles) wide. Age relationships between the two sets of graben are complex, but west-northwest trending features most often appear to crosscut the north trending graben. In the eastern portion of the image, structures have been heavily embayed by volcanic plains deposits. The appearance of a purely extensional feature within the compressional zone of the Freyja Montes orogenic belt may have significant implications for the mechanisms by which mountains are built on Venus.</text>
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<text>Perspective view of the southern boundary of Lakshmi Planum, Ishtar Terra, Venus. The southern scarp and basin province of western Ishtar Terra in the northern hemisphere of Venus is portrayed in this three-dimensional perspective view of Magellan radar image data. Western Ishtar Terra is an Australia-sized highland terrain that is a major focus of Magellan investigations. The highland is centered on a 2.5 to 4 kilometer-high (1.5 to 2.5 miles-high) plateau, Lakshmi Planum, which can be seen in the distance and to the right. Along this part of the Planum, the surface of the high plateau drops precipitously into the bounding lowlands, with slopes that exceed 5 percent over 50 kilometers (30 miles). The numerous fractures and valleys located on and adjacent to the steep outer slope of the plateau are clues to the formation of this unusually abrupt topographic drop. Along other parts of the boundary of Lakshmi are mountain ranges that rise as much as 6 kilometers (3.5 miles) above the plateau surface to over 11,000 meters (35,000 feet) above the mean elevation of the surface of Venus. One of these mountain ranges, Danu Montes, rises over 1.5 kilometers (1.0 mile) above the plateau and can be seen in the upper center of the image. Images such as this one show the relationship of geological features to topography and yield a valuable new perception of the radar data. For example, the small dome-shaped high (center left) is a volcano that is not apparent in the normal map-view display of Magellan images. Only when combined with topography in this fashion is the nature of the feature clearly evident. These perspective views also display fractures of the surface in their actual topographic setting. Understanding the relationship of topography to these fractures, which express the stresses and motions in the outer layers of the planet, helps geologists and geophysicists to formulate and test models for the formation of western Ishtar. The results of these studies will add to our understanding of the interior forces that shape the surface of Venus.</text>
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<text> On September 15, 1990, the Magellan spacecraft started radar operations for its mapping mission at Venus. This image is taken from the first set of radar data collected in the normal operating mode. This Magellan radar image is of part of the Danu Montes in the Lakshmi Region of Venus. The mosaic is part of orbits 376, 377, and 378 acquired on the first day of nominal mapping, September 15, 1990. Time image is located at 329.6 degrees E longitude and 58.75 degrees N latitude. This image is 40 kilometers (19.6 miles) wide and 60 kilometers (39.2 miles) high. Danu Montes is a mountain belt located at the southern edge of the Ishtar Terra highland region. It rises one to three kilometers above a flat plain to the north known as Lakshmi Planum. Lakshmi Planum contains several large volcanoes and abundant plains of volcanic origin. To the south of Danu Montes is a scarp (Vesta Rupes) marking the southern edge of Western Ishtar Terra. At the scarp the topography descends about two kilometers to the surrounding lowlands. On the basis of Pioneer Venus, Arecibo, and Venera data, Danu Montes and the other mountain belts surrounding Lakshmi Planum have been interpreted to be orogenic belts marking the focus of compressional deformation, much like the Appalachians and Andes on Earth. In the upper right part of this image, relatively bright, smooth-textured plains of Lakshmi Planum are seen to embay the heavily deformed mountain region to the south. In the mountain range south of these plains the geology is dominated by abundant faults at multiple angles and showing various cross-cutting relationships. In the northern part of the mountain the surface is dominated by sinuous, west-northwest trending troughs less than a kilometer (0.6 miles) in width, separated by narrow, flat regions. Further south are flat-floored features similar to extensional graben on Earth. These graben are up to 2 kilometers (1.3 miles) in width. The prominent bright and dark feature trending across the bottom part of the image is a linear trough about 5 kilometers wide (3.1 miles) located near the crest of the mountain range. South of the mountain crest, additional deformation is seen trending both parallel and perpendicular to the structures in other parts of the mountain belt. These patterns represent the complex tectonic deformation involved in the formation of the mountain ranges, and the graben-like features may represent extension associated with the gravitational collapse of the mountains subsequent to their initial formation.</text>
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<text> This image is a full-resolution mosaic of several Magellan images and is centered at 61 degrees north latitude and 341 degrees east longitude. The image is 250 kilometers wide (150 miles). The radar smooth region in the northern part of the image is Lakshmi Planum, a high plateau region roughly 3.5 kilometers (2.2 miles) above the mean planetary radius. Lakshmi Planum is ringed by intensely deformed terrain, some of which is shown in the southern portion of the image and is called Clotho Tessera. The 64-kilometer (40 mile) diameter circular feature in the image is a depression called Siddons and may be a volcanic caldera. This view is supported by the collapsed lava tubes surrounding the feature. By carefully studying this and other surrounding images scientists hope to discover what tectonic and volcanic processes formed this complex region. The solid black parts of the image represent data gaps that may be filled in by the Magellan extended mission.</text>
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<text> This image is a mosaic of 24 Magellan orbits of Venus over the Ishtar Terra region. The image is centered at about 55 degrees north latitude and 335 degrees east longitude, and is about 300 kilometers (180 miles) across. The mosaic covers the western part of Clotho Tessera, first identified in Soviet Venera 15/16 radar images of Venus. The region is dominated by a network of intersection ridges and valleys indicating a complex history of intense deformation. Domes, pits, and smooth, dark plains regions within the tessera indicate that volcanism has also been an active process in this region. Researchers on the Magellan project are mapping this region in detail in order to unravel the styles and sequence of deformation in Clotho. Resolution of the Magellan data is approximately 120 meters (400 feet).</text>
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<text> Image centered at 60¯ north latitude, 355¯ east longitude. Elevated plateau Lakshmi Planum at top of image drops off from a height of 4km into deformed lava plains. Egg-shaped feature is a 40km volcanic caldera.</text>
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<text> This Magellan image is centered at 55 degrees north latitude, 348.5 degrees longitude, in the eastern Lakshmi region of Venus. The image, which is 300 kilometers (180 miles) in width and 230 kilometers (138) miles in length, is a mosaic of orbits 458-484. The image shows a relatively flat plains region composed of many lava flows. The dark flows most likely represent smooth lava flows similar to pahoehoe flows on Earth while the brighter lava flows are rougher flows similar to aa flows on Earth. The rougher flows are brighter because the rough surface returns more energy to the radar than the smooth flows. Situated on top of the lava flows are three dark splotches. Because of the thick Venusian atmosphere, the small impactors break up before they reach the surface. Only the fragments from the broken up impactor are deposited on the surface and these fragments produce the dark splotches in this image. The splotch at the far right (east) has a crater centered in it, indicating that the impactor was not completely destroyed during its journey through the atmosphere. The dark splotches in the center and to the far left in this image each represent an impactor that was broken up into small fragments that did not penetrate the surface to produce a crater. The dark splotch at the left has been modified by the wind. A southwest-northwest wind flow has moved some of the debris making up the splotch to the northeast where it has piled up against some small ridges.</text>
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<text>The highest and most dramatic continent-sized highland on Venus is Ishtar Terra. It is illustrated in this graphics file based on topography measurements by the Pioneer Venus Orbiter. About the size of Australia or the continental United States (the outline of the continental U.S. is provided for scale), it is a high plateau in the northern hemishpere with several mountain ranges and surrounded by steep escarpments.</text>
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<text> The western half of Venus is displayed in this simple cylindrical map of the planet's surface. The left edge of the image is at 240 degrees east longitude, the right edge at 67.5 degrees east longitude. The top and bottom of the image are at 90 degrees north latitude and 90 degrees south latitude, respectively. Magellan synthetic aperture radar mosaics from the first cycle of Magellan mapping are mapped onto a rectangular latitude-longitude grid to create this image. Data gaps are filled with Pioneer-Venus Orbiter altimetric data, or a constant midrange value. Simulated color is used to enhance small-scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced by the Solar System Visualization project and the Magellan Science team at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory.</text>
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<text>The eastern half of the planet is displayed in this simple cylindrical map of the surface of Venus. The left edge of the image is at 52.5 degrees east longitude, the right edge of 240 degrees east longitude. The top and bottom of the image are at 90 degrees north latitude and 90 degrees south latitude, respectively. Magellan synthetic aperture radar mosaics from the first cycle of the Magellan mapping are mapped onto a rectangular latitude-longitude grid to create this image. Data gaps are filled with Pioneer-Venus Orbiter altimetric data, or a constant mid-range value. Simulated color is used to enhance small-scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced by the Solar System Visualization project and the Magellan Science team at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory.</text>
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<text> The northern hemisphere is displayed in this global view of the surface of Venus. The north pole is at the center of the image, with 0 degrees, 90 degrees, 180 degrees, 270 degrees east longitudes at the 6, 3, 12, and 9 o'clock positions, respectively, of an imaginary clock face. Magellan synthetic aperture radar mosaics from the first cycle of Magellan mapping are mapped onto a computer-simulated globe to create this image. Data gaps are filled with Pioneer-Venus Orbiter data, or a constant mid-range value. Simulated color is used to enhance small-scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory and is a single frame from a video released at the October 29, 1991 JPL news conference.</text>
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<text> Southern Hemisphere is displayed in this global view of Venus. South Pole is at the center of the image with 0┬░, 90┬░, 180┬░, and 270┬░ East Longitude at the 12, 3, 6, and 9 o'clock positions, respectively.</text>
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<text> This global view of the surface of Venus is centered at 0 degrees east Longitude. Magellan synthetic aperture radar mosaics from the first cycle of Magellan mapping are mapped onto a computer-simulated globe to create this image. Data gaps are filled with Pioneer-Venus orbiter data, or a constant mid-range value. Simulated color is used to enhance small-scale structure. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft. The image was produced by the Solar System Visualization project and the Magellan Science team at the JPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory, and is a single frame from a video released at the October 29, 1991, JPL news conference.</text>
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<text> Global view of Venus centered at 90┬░ East Longitude. SAR mosaics from 1st cycle of Magellan mapping are mapped onto a computer-simulated globe to create this image. Data gaps are filed with Pioneer-Venus data or a constant mid-range value.</text>
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<text> Global view of Venus centered at 90┬░ East Longitude. SAR mosaics from 1st cycle of Magellan mapping are mapped onto a computer-simulated globe to create this image. Data gaps are filed with Pioneer-Venus data or a constant mid-range value.</text>
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<text>Global view of Venus is centered at 270┬░ East longitude..</text>
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<text>Magellan's fourth eight-month cycle of Venus mapping, which began in September 1992, was dedicated to collecting gravity data. The computer-generated perspective shown here compares gravity and topography over a region 12,700 kilometers by 8,450 kilometers (7,860 miles by 5,240 miles) and extends from longitudes 180 degrees east to 300 degrees east and latitudes 40 degrees north to 40 degrees south. The highlands of Beta Regio and Atla Regio, sites of rifting and large volcanoes, have corresponding high topography and high gravity. These areas are interpreted to be sites where hot mantle material is upwelllng, forming "hot spots," slmllar to areas on Earth such as Hawaii. The two gravity highs at Atla correspond to the volcanoes Maat Mons, the higher of the two peaks, and Ozza Mons respectively. Gravity anomalies at Atla and Beta are the largest on Venus and these may be the sites of relatively young geologic features. In contrast to Earth, it is also seen that there is a near-perfect correlation between gravity and topography with anomalies, both positive (light blue) and negative (dark blue}, being correlated with topographic highs and lows. This correspondence is interpreted to indicate that, relative to Earth, the formation of features on Venus is more strongly linked to fluid motions in the mantle. The Magellan mission is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for NASA's Office of Space Science.</text>
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<text>This map of the topography of Venus was obtained by the Magellan radar altimeter during its 24 months of systematic mapping. Color is used to code elevation (see color bar), and simulated shading to emphasize relief. Red corresponds to the highest, blue to the lowest elevations. The upper image shows the portion of the planet between 69 degrees north and 69 degrees south latitude in Mercator projection; beneath it are the two polar regions covering latitudes above 44 degrees in stereographic projection. Height accuracy is better than 50 meters; horizontal (footprint) resolution of the surface depends on spacecraft altitude, with a resolution of about 10 kilometers (6 miles) near the equator and as much as 25 kilometers (15.5 miles) at higher latitudes. The Magellan altimeter acquired topography data over 98 percent of the planer's surface. Gray areas show the coarser results from the Pioneer Venus (1978) and Venera 15/16 (1983) radar altimeters, and indicate where data were not obtained by Magellan. The elevated region in the north is Ishtar Terra, dominated by Maxwell Montes (the planet's highest mountains) which rise 11 kilometers (36,000 feet) above the planetary mean elevation. Southwest of Ishtar are the highlands of Beta Regio and Phoebe Regio, which are bisected by a major north-south trending rift zone. The scorpion-shaped feature extending along the equator between 70 and 210 degrees longitude is Aphrodite Terra, a continent-like highland that contains several spectacular volcanoes at its eastern limit: Maat, Ozza and Sapas Montes. The altimetric data shown here were compiled and analyzed at the Center for Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.</text>
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<text>These maps of Venus show how well various regions of the surface radiate heat compared to a perfect radiator. They display in color a quantity called emissivity, observed using a Magellan synthetic aperture radar (SAR) receiver during its 24 months of systematic mapping in Venus orbit. Color is used to code the emission efficiency (see color bar). Red corresponds to the highest, blue to the lowest values of emissivity. The upper images show the portion of the planet between 69 degrees north and 69 degrees south latitude in Mercator projection; beneath it are the two polar regions covering latitudes above 44 degrees in stereographic projection. The horizontal resolution varies with latitude, being determined solely by the "footprint" of Magellan's high-gain SAR antenna beam. Near the equator the surface resolution is about 20 kilometers (12.4 miles), but at high latitudes it degrades to as much as 100 kilometers (62 miles). Emissivity.of the surface is a measure of how well the surface radiates heat. Higher regions, such as the Maxwell Montes (at top left center) and Aphrodite Terra (along the equator at right center), usually show lower values of emissivity than are typical of lower-lying areas. On a cooler planet, such as Earth or Mars, water or ice might explain the puzzling observations but at the surface temperature of Venus -- 470 degrees C (878 F) neither can be present. Some theories call for the presence of an electrically-conducting mineral such as pyrite (the minerals have an electrical field when illuminated by radar); others suggest a material as yet unidentified that has an extremely low electrical loss. The data shown here were compiled and analyzed at the Center for Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.</text>
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<text> These images of the Venus clouds were taken by Galileo's Solid State Imaging System February 13,1990, at a range of about 1 million miles. The smallest detail visible is about 20 miles. The two right images show Venus in violet light, the top one at time six hours later than the bottom one. They show the state of the clouds near the top of Venus's cloud deck. A right-to-left motion of the cloud features is evident and is consistent with westward winds of about 230 mph. The two left images show Venus in near-infrared light, at the same times as the two right images. Sunlight penetrates through the clouds more deeply at the near-infrared wavelengths, allowing a view near the bottom of the cloud deck. The westward motion or the clouds is slower (about 150 mph) at the lower altitude. The clouds are composed of sulfuric acid droplets and occupy a range of altitudes from 30 to 45 miles. The images have been spatially filtered to bring out small-scale details and de-emphasize global shading. The filtering has introduced artifacts (wiggly lines running north-south) that are faintly visible in the infrared image. TheGalileo Project is managed for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory; its mission is to study Jupiter and its satellites and magnetosphere after multiple gravity-assist flybys at Venus and Earth.</text>
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<text>This image is a false-color version of a near-infrared map of lower-level clouds on the night side of Venus, obtained by the Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer aboard the Galileo spacecraft as it approached the planet February 10, 1990. Taken from an altitude of about 60,000 miles above the planet, at an infrared wavelength of 2.3 microns (about three times the longest wavelength visible to the human eye) the map shows the turbulent, cloudy middle atmosphere some 30-33 miles above the surface, 6-10 miles below the visible cloudtops. The image shows the radiant heat from the lower atmosphere (about 400 degrees Fahrenheit) shining through the sulfuric acid clouds, which appear as much as 10 times darker than the bright gaps between clouds. The colors indicate relative cloud transparency; white and red show thin cloud regions, while black and blue represent relatively thick clouds. This cloud layer is at about -30 degrees Fahrenheit, at a pressure about 1/2 Earth's atmospheric pressure. About 2/3 of the dark hemisphere is visible, centered on longitude 350 West, with bright slivers of daylit high clouds visible at top and bottom left. Near the equator, the clouds appear fluffy and blocky; farther north, they are stretched out into East-West filaments by winds estimated at more than 150 mph, while the poles are capped by thick clouds at this altitude. The Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) on the Galileo spacecraft is a combined mapping (imaging) and spectral instrument. It can sense 408 contiguous wavelengths from 0.7 microns (deep red) to 5.2 microns, and can construct a map or image by mechanical scanning. It can spectroscopically analyze atmospheres and surfaces and construct thermal and chemical maps. Designed and operated by scientists and engineers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NIMS involves 15 scientists in the U.S., England, and France. The Galileo Project is managed for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications by JPL; Its mission is to study the planet Jupiter and its satellites and magnetosphere after multiple gravity-assist flybys at Venus and the Earth.</text>
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<text> This picture of Venus was taken by the Galileo spacecraft's Solid State Imaging System on February 14, 1990, at a range of almost 1.7 million miles from the planet. A high-pass spatial filter has been applied in order to emphasize the smaller-scale cloud features, and the rendition has been colorized to a bluish hue in order to emphasize the subtle contrasts in the cloud markings and to indicate that it was taken through a violet filter The sulfuric acid clouds indicate considerable convective activity, in the equatorial regions of the planet to the left and downwind of the subsolar point (afternoon on Venus). 'They are analogous to "fair weather clouds" on Earth. The filamentary dark features visible in the colorized image are here revealed to be composed of several dark nodules, like beads on a string, each about 60 miles across. The Galileo Project is managed for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory; its mission is to study Jupiter and its satellites and magnetosphere after multiple gravity-assist flybys at Venus and Earth</text>
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<text>This colorized picture of Venus was taken February 14, 1990 at a distance of almost 1.7 million miles, about 6 days after Galileo's closest approach to the planet. It has been colorized to a bluish hue to emphasize subtle contrasts in markings and to indicate that it was taken through a violet filter. Features in the sulfuric acid clouds near the top of the planet's atmosphere are most prominent in violet and ultraviolet light. This image shows the east-to-west-trending cloud banding and the brighter polar hoods familiar from past studies of Venus. The features are embedded in winds that flow from east to west at about 230 mph. The smallest features visible are about 45 miles across. An intriguing filamentary dark pattern is immediately left of the bright region at: the subsolar point (equatorial "noon"). North is at the top and the evening terminator is to the left. The Galileo Project is managed for NASA's Office of Space, Science and Applications by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory; its mission is to study Jupiter and its satellites and magnetosphere after multiple gravity-assist flybys at Venus and Earth.</text>
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<text> This Magellan full-resolution mosaicked image shows an unnamed crater which is an approximately 13 kilometer (8 mile) diameter impact crater. This crater is located at 6.0 degrees north latitude, 331.9 degrees longitude. The asymmetry of the ejecta blanket indicates that the impacting body probably hit obliquely, traveling from south to north. Debris kicked up by the impact created secondary craters to the north.</text>
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<text> This Magellan image shows a complex crater, 31.9 km (20 miles) in diameter with a circular rim, terraced walls, and central peaks, located at 20.3 degrees north latitude and 331.8 degrees east longitude. Several unusual features are evidenced in this image: large dark surface up range from the crater; lobate flows emanating from crater ejecta, and very radar-bright ejecta and floor. Aurelia has been proposed to the International Astronomical Union, Subcommittee of Planetary Nomenclature as a candidate name. Aurelia is the mother of Julius Caesar.</text>
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<text> This irregularly-shaped crater is located at 51.7 degrees south latitude, 348.3 degrees longitude, with an average diameter of about 11 kilometers (7 miles). While areas east and southwest of the crater appear to be blockier than the rest of the bright ejecta, this crater does not have the usual well-defined lobate ejecta flows. Both the crater and the associated ejecta have asymmetrical forms. Impact craters on Venus in this size range commonly display these irregular features.</text>
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<text> This is a Magellan image mosaic of an impact crater located in Guinevere Planitia with a fire diameter 12.5 kilometers (7.8 miles). The mosaic is located at 6 degrees north latitude , 335 degrees longitude, and is from orbits 376 and 377 obtained on September 15, 1990. The image is about 37 kilometers (23 miles) wide and 80 kilometers (48 miles) long. Material thrown out from the impact forms a bright ejecta blanket surrounding most of the crater. The object that formed this crater was probably moving toward the north (top of picture) at a shallow angle to the surface when it hit. The two lines of evidence that support this view are the "missing ejecta" on the south and the small secondary craters seen to the north. Time secondary craters are formed by large blocks thrown out of the primary crater. Most of the larger blocks landed close to the crater rim, while finer material traveled farther, creating a radial pattern. The inside of the crater shows terracing caused by slumping of the inner wall. A complex central peak is also seen; it was formed by uplift of the ground when it rebounds following impact. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 feet).</text>
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<text> During orbits 404 through 414 on 19-20 September 1990, Magellan imaged a peak-ring crater that is 50 kilometers in diameter located at latitude 27.4 degrees north and longitude 337.5 degrees east. The name Barton has been proposed by the Magellan Science Team for this crater, after Clara Barton, founder of the Red Cross; however, the name is tentative pending approval by the international Astronomical Union. Barton is just at the diameter size that Venus craters appear to begin to possess peak-rings instead of a single central peak or central peak complex as do 75 percent of the craters with diameters between 50 and about 15 kilometers. The floor of the crater is flat and radar-dark. indicating possible infilling by volcanic deposits sometime following the impact event. Barton's central peak ring is discontinuous and appears to have been disrupted or separated during or following the cratering process. The extremely blocky crater deposits (ejecta) surrounding Barton appear to be most extensive on the southwest to southeast (lower left to right) side of the crater.</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> This full resolution mosaicked image covers an area of approximately 100 kilometers by 120 kilometers (62 by 74 miles) and is located in the Lakshmi region of Venus at 47 degrees north latitude and 334 east longitude. Due to the dense Venusian atmosphere, primary impact craters of less than a 3 kilometer (2 mile) diameter are nonexistent. The dark circular region and associated central bright feature in this image are thought to be the remnants of a meteoroid smaller than the size necessary to create an impact crater entering the atmosphere at a low velocity (approximately 350 meters/second.) The central bright feature appears to be a cluster of small secondary impacts, ejecta and debris from the original meteor that broke up in the atmosphere. Even though most of the meteorite did not hit the surface, the atmospheric shock wave could be great enough to modify the surrounding region. One explanation for this radar-dark circular formation, called dark margins, could be that the shock wave was energetic enough to pulverize the surface (smooth surfaces generally appear radar-dark.) Another explanation is that the surface could be blanketed by a fine material that was formed by the original meteor's breakup through the atmosphere. More than half of the impact craters on Venus have associated dark margins, and most of these are prominently located left of center of the crater. This is another effect which could be caused by the dense atmosphere of Venus.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span></text>
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<text> This Magellan mosaic covers an area of approximately 228 kilometers by 228 kilometers (141 by 141 miles). It is centered at 9.3 degrees north latitude, 357.8 degrees east longitude in the Navka region. The radar illumination is from the left. The image shows a cluster of impact craters whose ejecta is distributed in a butterfly pattern rather than radially out from the craters. The impacting object probably broke up during its passage through the atmosphere causing the multiple craters. The asymmetrical distribution of ejecta is indicative of an impact from an oblique angle. The cluster is located in a fractured plain with radar bright lineaments intersecting in several directions.Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</text>
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<text> This image shows a flooded impact crater, several collapse features, and lava flows to the south of Lavinia Planitia in the southern hemisphere. Centered at 60 degrees south latitude, 352 degrees east longitude, the image covers an area of approximately 300 x 500 kilometers (180 x 300 miles). The impact crater is 65 kilometers (39 miles) in diameter and was originally about 500 meters (1300 feet) deep but has been almost completely buried by lava flows, leaving only the rim and the southeastern part of the bright, rough ejecta deposit. Recent lava flows appear as bright or dark regions with sinuous boundaries. Collapse features are linear or sinuous valleys which range from 200 meters (650 feet) to 5 kilometers (3 miles) in width and are up to 100 kilometers (60 miles) long. These valleys may form when subsurface magma drains along tectonic fractures, allowing the overlying surface to collapse.</text>
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<text> This Magellan imaged multiple-floored, irregular impact crater at latitude 16.4 degrees north, longitude 352.1 degrees east, during orbits 481 and 482 on 27 September 1990. This crater, about 9.2 kilometers in maximum diameter, was formed on what appears to be a slightly fractured, radar-dark (smooth) plain. The abundant, low viscosity flows associated with this cratering event have, however, filled local, fault-controlled troughs (called graben). These shallow graben are well portrayed on this Magellan image but would be unrecognizable were it not for their coincidental infilling by the radar-bright crater flows. This fortuitous enhancement by the crater flows of fault structures that are below the resolution of the Magellan synthetic aperture radar is providing the Magellan Science Team with valuable geologic information. The flow deposits from the craters are thought to consist primarily of shock melted rock and fragmented debris resulting from the nearly simultaneous impacts of two projectile fragments into the hot (800 degrees Fahrenheit) surface rocks of Venus. The presence of the various floors of this irregular crater is interpreted to be the result of crushing, fragmentation, and eventual aerodynamic dispersion of a single entry projectile during passage through the dense Venusian atmosphere.</text>
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<text>Dark Halos Revealed Around Impact Craters: New Geologic Clocks for Venus?This Magellan image mosaic located in the Lavinia region shows the crater Carson, a 38 km (23 mile) diameter crater. The image is centered at about 24 degrees south latitude, 344 degrees longitude. Impact craters in the Magellan data are frequently surrounded by radar-dark halos. Several of these halos were noted to have a hyperbolic shape, extending hundreds of kilometers to the west of the craters. Five of these dark halos were also seen extending out from craters in Magellan emissivity data. Magellan emissivity data, derived from the altimeter data, provides information about the porosity (soil versus solid rock) and the composition of the surface. The darkness in the emissivity data indicates a very smooth surface, leading to the interpretation that these halos may be thick, smooth sediment deposits formed by the 'crushing' blow of the atmosphere associated with the incoming projectile that formed the impact crater. But why are only about 5% of the craters surrounded by these halos? On the surface of most planets, the population of impact craters can be used to obtain both relative and absolute surface ages. On Venus, as on Earth, there are relatively few craters, making relative age dating (comparing one region of the planet to another) statistically difficult. The number of craters on Venus indicates that the surface may be only about 400 million years old. The dark halos may indicate the very youngest craters on the planet --where the harsh conditions on Venus have not yet caused these dark halos to 'roughen up' and disappear. The halos could possibly be used as 'geologic clocks.' Volcanic flows or tectonic structures cutting one of these halos are interpreted to have occurred even more recently than the craters. This image shows such a situation, where flows associated with the crater cut across the halo, indicating a very young age. Scientists are continuing to identify these halos in the Magellan data and use them to understand the geologic evolution of the surface.</text>
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<text> This mosaic is made up from Magellan orbits 146 and 147, obtained on August 16, 1990 in the Helen region of the southern hemisphere of Venus and centered at 36.5 degrees south latitude, 293.3 degrees longitude. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meter (400 feet). The mosaic is about 40 kilometers(24 miles) wide and about 80 kilometers (50 miles) long, and shows a portion of a corona in a highland region called Themis Regio. Coronae are large [>250 kilometers (150 miles) across] circular structures surrounded by a ring of ridges. Coronae were first identified in Soviet radar images of Venus. Coronae usually average about 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) high, and are thought to form due to the rise of hot material from the interior of the planet, similar to Hawaii on the Earth. The mosaicked Magellan images show the interior of the corona and a portion of its rim. Ridges appear to radiate out from the center of the corona, perhaps produced due to extensional stresses caused by uplift of the surface. Geologists and geophysicists will be analyzing the morphology, spacing, and topography of this complex tectonic feature to understand more about the origin of coronae and how they relate to similar features on Earth.</text>
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<text>On September 15, 1990, the Magellan spacecraft started radar operations for its mapping mission at Venus. This image is taken from the first set of radar data collected in the normal operating mode. This Magellan radar image is part of the southern Lavinia Planitia region of Venus obtained during orbit 377. The center of the image is at 356 degrees east longitude, 68.7 degrees south latitude. The image is 30 kilometers (18 miles) wide and 70 kilometers (43 miles) long. On the basis of Arecibo data it is known that these features are located near the center of a large oval-shaped deformation structure, known as a corona, 775 kilometers (480 miles) in diameter adjacent to east-northeast trending linear features. The center of this corona is the focus of abundant lava flows extending hundreds of kilometers into the surrounding plains. The Magellan image reveals the details of this central volcanic source region. The Magellan image is characterized by an egg-shaped fault-bounded depression (center left of the image) interpreted to be a volcanic caldera, a radar-bright lobate deposit interpreted to be a volcanic flow, and multiple east-west trending bright linear structures interpreted to be fault scarps and troughs. Calderas form from the withdrawal of molten rock from a chamber below the surface and collapse of the overlying rocks. The egg-shaped caldera shows evidence of two stages of collapse. The outer boundary, which appears to have a slightly raised rim, is 8 x 10 kilometers (5 x 6 miles) in diameter; the inner boundary is 5 x 6 kilometers (3 x 4 miles) in diameter. The floor of the caldera is 4 x 6 kilometers (2.5 x 4 miles) in diameter and appears smooth. The part of the bright lava flow seen in this image (just south of the caldera) is 30 kilometers (18 miles) long and 2-12 kilometers (1.25-7.5 miles) wide. Various features often associated with lava flows are observed. Features resembling raised levees are observed along the edges of the flow in the western part of the image. Lobate extensions of the flow are observed in a direction towards the caldera. A variety of cross-cutting relationships of linear structures and the flow are observed. On Earth, such linear features are often the sources of flows. The linear feature north of the caldera extends across the width of the image, is approximately 2 kilometers (1.25 miles) wide, and appears to be a trough that tapers to the east. The linear features to the south of the caldera extend from 13 to at least 30 kilometers (8-18 miles) across the image and are 1-2 kilometers (.62-1.24 mile) wide. These features may represent fault scarps or troughs, and are likely associated with the movement of subsurface magma and the formation of the large corona in which these features occur.</text>
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<text> This Magellan image centered at 25o South, 82.5o longitude shows a corona located about a thousand kilometers south of Aphrodite Terra. This unnamed corona is 375 km in diameter; it flanks a north-south trending fracture zone which meets a smaller corona in the southeast corner of the image. Coronae are thought to form as a result of heat flow from the interior of the planet melting the crust. The molten material rises toward the surface, causing it to dome. As it subsequently cools off, the dome collapses. The annular ring of fractures and graben, visible in this image, along with the volcanic domes in the center are characteristic features of coronae. Other features associated with the large corona are also noteworthy. The bright rim along the northern edge of the corona may represent blocky debris which has fallen from its flank. The pancake dome on the western edge of the corona is a viscous extrusion; it is thought to be younger than the adjacent graben, since it is superposed on top of them. The coronae are found amidst lava plains. Individual flow complexes are distinguished from each other by variations in radar brightness. This suggests subsequent events which resulted in lavas of different textures (bright grays are blockier, while darker ones are smoother). The light gray blotch in the radar-dark circumferential valley on the northwestern edge of the large corona is a section of the plains, which, because of its relative height, did not get covered by the non-viscous flow. This flow was discharged from the corona through fissures.</text>
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<text>This scene, which covers an area of 75 kilometers (46 miles) by 45 kilometers (28 miles), shows an area of dark volcanic lava flows overlying surrounding plains which are thought to have been formed from older flows. Some of the dark flows terminate on the narrow bright sinuous feature to the right of the image and it is assumed that they originate from eruptions at fissures located along this bright feature. The image is located at latitude 4.6 degrees North and longitude 331.8 East. The horizontal banding is a processing artifact in this photo made from the first orbit after the start of systematic mapping.</text>
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<text> The Magellan spacecraft has observed remnant landslide deposits apparently resulting from the collapse of volcanic structures. This image, centered at 45.2 degrees south latitude, 201.4 degrees east longitude, shows a collapse deposit 70 kilometers (43 miles) across- The bright, highly textured deposit near the center of the image probably consists of huge blocks of fractured volcanic rock, many as large as several hundred meters across. A remnant of the volcano itself, about 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) across, is seen at the center of the image. The distorted radar appearance of the volcano is a result of extremely steep slopes on the "scars" from which the landslide material originated. A field of numerous small volcanic domes can be seen in the northern half of the image. The bright irregular lineaments trending to the north-northwest are ridges caused by regional tectonic deformation of the upper layers of the Venusian crust.</text>
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<text> These two Magellan radar images are centered about 60.5 degrees south latitude and 348.8 degrees east longitude in the eastern Lavinia Region of Venus. The images, which are 110 kilometers (68 miles) in length and 130 kilometers (81 miles) in width, are full resolution mosaics of 14 orbits. The bottom image was made during cycle 2 of the Magellan mission when the radar was looking to the right of the spacecraft and at an angle of 25 degrees. The top image was made at the beginning of the mission when the radar was looking to the left and at an angle of 20 degrees. The mission data at the lower left of the top image represents the beginning of radar mapping during cycle 1. Both images show an area with interesting troughs, which are collapse features. In the bottom image, the north-south trending trough has a bright side on the left and a dark side on the right, while in the top image it is reversed. This is because the side of the trough sloping away from the radar appears dark while the side facing the radar appears bright. Since the radar was looking from the right in the bottom image and from the left in the top image, the bright and dark sides for the trough are reversed between the top and bottom images. It is very useful to obtain right-looking and left-looking images of the same area because features may not be visible from the opposite look direction. For instance, there are some fractures that can only be seen in one image. In addition, the different incidence angles obtained in cycle 2 of the mission, will allow scientists to better understand the nature of the Venus surface. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 1__ meters (400 feet).</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> Two unusual volcanic domes are shown in this Magellan full-resolution mosaicked image. The image covers an area 180 by 240 kilometers (120 by 160 miles) centered at 18.1 degrees north latitude, 303.52 degrees east longitude, just east of Beta Regio. The dome in the south center of the image is about 45 kilometers (30 miles) across, with a 20 kilometer (13 mile) caldera, or volcanic collapse crater, in the center. The dome in the northwest corner of the image is about 30 kilometers (20 miles) across with a small (5 kilometer or 3 mile) summit crater; the very bright radar return from the western flank of this dome indicates that it has steep slopes. The flanks of these volcanoes display prominent gullies which may have been formed by sloping of surface material or thermal erosion by lava flows. Variation in the brightness within the surrounding plains show the extent of lava flows which originated at these volcanoes. Arcuate fractures surrounding the southern edifice indicate that there has been subsidence (down warping) of the dome following eruptive activity.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, California 91109</span></text>
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<text> This Magellan full-resolution mosaic of Venus, centered at 10 degrees north latitude, 301 degrees east longitude, shows an area replete with diverse volcanic features. The image, of an area 489 kilometers long by 311 kilometers wide (303 by 193 miles), is dominated by volcanic plains which appear mottled because of varying roughnesses of each solidified lava flow. The rougher the terrain the brighter it appears in the radar image. The small, bright bumps clustered in the left portion of the image are a grouping of small volcanoes called a shield field. Each shield volcano is approximately 2 to 5 kilometers (1.2 to 3.1 miles) in diameter and has very subdued relief. It is believed that the lava flows that make up each shield originates from a common source. To the right of the shield field is another type of volcano, called a scalloped dome. It is 25 kilometers (16 miles) in diameter and has a central pit. Some of the indistinct lobe-shaped pattern around the dome may either be lava flows or rocky debris which has fallen from the scalloped cliffs surrounding the domes. The small radial ridges characteristic of scalloped domes are remnants of catastrophic landslides. To the right of that feature is a large depression called a volcanic caldera. The caldera was formed when lava was expelled from an underground chamber, which when emptied, subsequently collapsed forming the depression. The feature furthermost to the east (right) is another scalloped dome, 35 kilometers (22 miles) in diameter. That feature is unusual in that lava came out through the southeastern margin, rafting a large portion of the dome for 20 kilometers (12 miles). The lava continues into the lower right portion of the area in the image. Its steep rounded boundaries suggest it was a very sticky, oozing lava. That same type of lava is what scientists propose formed the steep-sided domes such as the bright, round feature, slightly northeast of center. It is highly likely that the features are all part of a single volcanic complex, where a large body of molten rock formed beneath the surface feeding each of the volcanoes above. The presence of fractures in the west, partially surrounding the volcanoes supports this theory.</text>
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<text>This Magellan full-resolution mosaic which covers an area 143 by 146 kilometers (89 by 91 miles) is centered at 55 degrees north latitude, 266 degrees east longitude. The bright feature, slightly south of center is interpreted to be a volcano, 15-20 kilometers (9.3 to 12.4 miles) in diameter with a large apron of blocky debris to its right and some smaller aprons to its left. A preferred explanation is that several massive catastrophic landslides dropped down steep slopes and were carried by their momentum out into the smooth, dark lava plains. At the base of the east-facing or largest scallop on the volcano is what appears to be a large block of coherent rock, 8 to 10 kilometers (5 to 6 miles) in length. The similar margin of both the scallop and block and the shape in general is typical of terrestrial slumped blocks (masses of rock which slide and rotate down a slope instead of breaking apart and tumbling). The bright lobe to the south of the volcano may either be a lava flow or finer debris from other landslides. This volcanic feature, characterized by its scalloped flanks is part of a class of volcanoes called scalloped or collapsed domes of which there are more than 80 on Venus. Based on the chute-like shapes of the scallops and the existence of a spectrum of intermediate to well defined examples, it is hypothesized that all of the scallops are remnants of landslides even though the landslide debris is often not visible. Possible explanations for the missing debris are that it may have been covered by lava flows, the debris may have weathered or that the radar may not be recognizing it because the individual blocks are too small.</text>
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<text>This image is centered at approximately 29.6 degrees south latitude and 341 degrees east longitude in the Lavinia Region of Venus. Volcanic vent areas in this part of the plains west of Alpha Regio consist of domes and pits up to nearly 3 kilometers across. Extending eastward these features are sinuous channels, most of which are about 10 kilometers or more long. The channels narrow away from the pits and for most of their lengths are about 1 kilometer in diameter. The nearest planetary analogues for these features are sinuous rilles on the moon. These have been explained as lava channels and/or the result of lava erosion. On Earth lava channels form by downhill drainage of a lava flow leaving a channel behind. Lava may continue to flow in the channel once it has formed. However, lava channels on Earth are normally only a few meters or tens of meters wide. On the other hand, they may be the result of lava erosion. This is a process that only normally occurs to a limited extent on Earth because melting is inhibited by the cool upper layers of the planet. Also, lavas rarely flow turbulently enough to cause mechanical erosion. On Venus the surface materials are already at high temperatures, thus assisting thermal erosion and it is possible that lavas which may flow turbulently are more readily available than on earth. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 feet).</text>
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<text>This image, with radar illumination from west to east, shows three unusual volcanoes located in the Guinevere Planitia lowland. At the center of the image is a large feature (50 kilometers or 31 miles in diameter) with an unusual shape; very round when viewed from above with steep slides and a flat top. These volcanoes are believed to be the result of relatively thick and sticky (viscous) lava flows that originated from a point source. Although a faint remnant of its original circular shape is preserved, the northern rim of this center volcano has a steep scarp. The scarp is probably the result of material that has slid away from the volcano and subsequently has been covered by lava flows. This volcano overlaps another feature to the southwest that is about 45 kilometers (28 miles) in diameter and disrupted by many fractures. The southeastern volcano (25 kilometers or 15.5 miles in diameter) appears to be the highest of the three as its illuminated western edge has the brightest radar return. The scalloped edges give this feature a bottle cap-like appearance. The highly scalloped edges are probably the result of multiple material slides along the volcano margin.</text>
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<text>Chaotic Tessera Terrain at Alpha Region This chaotic terrain is located within central Alpha Regio and is called "tessera." Tessera is the Greek word for "tile" and was first used by the Soviets as a morphometric term to describe complicated terrains in Venera 15/16 radar imagery. This area lies between 25.0 and 26.5 degrees south latitude and between 359.9 and 1.4 degrees east longitude. This complicated type of terrain is often found at relatively high elevations up to 3 kilometers (9900 feet) above the surrounding plains. The largest structures are arcuate ridges and troughs that are about 10 kilometers (6.3 miles) wide and less than 70 kilometers (43.8 miles) long. The presence of multiple linear and curvilinear structures at various scales probably indicates that this area has undergone many episodes of deformation. Narrow graben, trending NW-SE, are ubiquitous in this area and cross-cut virtually all the other structures. Thus, these graben appear to represent the latest phase of deformation in the area.</text>
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<text>This portion of a Magellan radar image strip shows a small region on Venus 20 km (12.4 miles) wide and 75 km (50 miles) high, on the east flank of a major volcanic upland called Beta Regio. The image is centered at 23 degrees North latitude and 286.7 degrees East longitude. The ridge and valley network in the middle part of the image is formed by intersecting faults which have broken the Venusian crust into a complex deformed type of surface called tessera, the Latin word for tile. The parallel mountains and valleys resemble the Basin and Range Province in the Western United States.The irregular dark patch near the top of the image is a smooth surface, probably formed by lava flows in a region about 10 kilometers (6 miles) across. Similar dark surfaces within the valleys indicate lava flows that are younger than the tessera giving an indication of the geologic time relationships of the events that formed the present surface.The image has a resolution of 120 meters (400 feet).</text>
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<text> This Magellan full resolution mosaic, centered at 12.3 north latitude, 8.3 east longitude, shows an area 160 kilometers (96 miles) by 250 kilometers (150 miles) in the Eistla region of Venus. The prominent circular features are volcanic domes, 65 kilometers (39 miles) in diameter with broad flat tops less than 1 kilometer (.6 mile) in height. Sometimes referred to as "pancake" domes, they represent a unique category of volcanic extrusions on Venus formed from viscous (sticky) lava. The cracks and pits commonly found in these features result from cooling and the withdrawal of lava. A less viscous flow was emitted from the northeastern dome toward the other large dome in the southwest corner of the image.Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</text>
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<text> This Magellan image of Venus is centered at 25 degrees south latitude and 3 degrees east longitude. Most of this image is of complex ridge terrain, otherwise known as tessera. Relationships between ridges and troughs may indicate a time sequence of deformation, so a series of events can be hypothesized. These clues give insight into the complex nature of tectonics in tessera areas. This image shows at least two different kinds of tessera and several examples of intratessera plains. In the upper northwest quadrant an orthogonal patterned tessera is most pronounced where ridges and troughs trend west-northwest. Spaced 20 to 50 kilometers (12 to 31 miles) apart and over 50 kilometers (31 miles) in length, these troughs and ridges commonly intersect and disrupt smaller (less than 25 kilometers [16 miles] long) north-northeast-trending structures, predominantly troughs spaced about 1 kilometer (.6 mile) apart. Another kind of tessera seen in the southwest quadrant of the image is a complex tessera. Two different scales of structures are seen. The first consists of ridges and troughs in arcuate, loop-like patterns at the spacing of 10 to 20 kilometers (6 to 12). On the spacing of 1 kilometer (.6 miles) or less, structures consist of scarps, fractures and troughs. These smaller structures tend to follow local trends set by the larger loop-like structures. Intratessera plains are the dark, smooth patches scattered throughout the tessera. The very faint small bumps are shield volcanoes that are less than 5 kilometers (3 miles) across.Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</text>
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<text>This full resolution radar mosaic from Magellan at 49 degrees south latitude, 273 degrees east longitude of an area with dimensions of 130 by 190 kilometers (81 by 118 miles), shows a 200 kilometer (124 mile) segment of a sinuous channel on Venus. The channel is approximately 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) wide. These channel-like features are common on the plains of Venus. In some places they appear to have been formed by lava which may have melted or thermally eroded a path over the plains' surface. Most are 1 to 3 kilometers (0.6 to 2 miles) wide. They resemble terrestrial rivers in some respects, with meanders, cutoff oxbows, and abandoned channel segments. However, Venus channels are not as tightly sinuous as terrestrial rivers. Most are partly buried by younger lava plains, making their sources difficult to identify. A few have vast radar-dark plains units associated with them, suggesting large flow volumes. These channels appear to be older than other channel types on Venus, as they are crossed by fractures and wrinkle ridges, and are often buried by other volcanic materials. In addition, they appear to run both upslope and downslope, suggesting that the plains were warped by regional tectonism after channel formation. Resolution of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 feet).</text>
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<text>This full-resolution radar mosaic from Magellan at 52 degrees north latitude, 170 degrees east longitude, shows a 94 kilometer (56 mile) segment of the longest channel discovered on Venus to date. The channel is approximately 1.8 kilometers (1.1 miles) wide. At over 7000 kilometers (4200 miles) long, it is at least several hundred kilometers longer than the Nile River, Earth's longest river; thus, making it the longest known channel in the solar system. Both ends of the channel are obscured, however, so its original length is unknown. This channel was initially discovered by the Soviet Venera 1516 orbiters, which, in spite of their 1 kilometer resolution, detected over 1000 kilometers of the channel. These channel-like features are common on the plains of Venus. In some places they appear to have been formed by lava which may have melted or eroded a path over the plains' surface. They resemble terrestrial meandering rivers superficially. Most are 1-3 kilometers (.6 to 2 miles) wide, though one degraded channel is 12 kilometers (7.4 miles) wide. They often exhibit meanders, cutoff oxbows, and abandoned channel segments, though they are not as tightly sinuous as terrestrial rivers. Most are partly buried by younger lava plains, making their sources difficult to identify. A few have terminal deposits, vast radar-dark plains units associated with them, suggesting large flow volumes. These channels appear to be older than other channel types, as they are crossed by fractures and wrinkle ridges, and are often buried by other volcanic materials. In addition, they appear to run both upslope and downslope, suggesting that the plains formed and were later warped by regional tectonism.Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, California 91109</text>
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<text>This full-resolution radar mosaic from Magellan at 51 degrees north latitude, 168 degrees east longitude, shows a 140 kilometer (84 mile) segment of the longest channel discovered on Venus to date. The channel is approximately 1.8 kilometers (1.1 miles) wide. At over 7000 kilometers (4200 miles) long, it is at least several hundred kilometers longer than the Nile River, Earth's longest river; thus, making it the longest known channel in the solar system. Both ends of the channel are obscured, however, so its original length is unknown. This channel was initially discovered by the Soviet Venera 15/16 orbiters, which, in spite of their 1 kilometer resolution, detected over 1000 kilometers of the channel. These channel-like features are common on the plains of Venus. In some places they appear to have been formed by lava which may have melted or eroded a path over the plains' surfaces. They resemble terrestrial meandering rivers superficially. Most are 1-3 kilometers (.6 to 2 miles) wide, though one degraded channel is 12 kilometers (7.4 miles) wide. They often exhibit meanders, cutoff oxbows, and abandoned channel segments, though they are not as tightly sinuous as terrestrial rivers. Most are partly buried by younger lava plains, making their sources difficult to identify. A few have terminal deposits, vast radar-dark plains units associated with them, suggesting large flow volumes. These channels appear to be older than other channel types, as they are crossed by fractures and wrinkle ridges, and are often buried by other volcanic materials. In addition, they appear to run both upslope and downslope, suggesting that the plains formed and were later warped by regional tectonism.Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</text>
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<text>This compressed resolution radar mosaic from Magellan at 49 degrees north latitude, 165 degrees east longitude with dimensions of 460 x 460 kilometers (285 x 285 miles), shows a 600 kilometer (360 mile) segment of the longest channel discovered on Venus to date. The channel is approximately 1.8 kilometers (1.1 miles) wide. At over 7000 kilometers (4200 miles) long, it is over several hundred kilometers longer than the Nile River, Earth's longest river; thus, making it the longest known channel in the solar system. Both ends of the channel are obscured, however, so its original length is unknown.This channel was initially discovered by the Soviet Venera 15/16 orbiters, which, in spite of their 1 kilometer resolution, detected over 1000 kilometers of the channel. Channel-like features are common on the plains of Venus. In some places they appear to have been formed by lava which may have melted or thermally eroded a path over the plains' surfaces. Most are 1-3 kilometers (.6 to 2 miles) wide, though one degraded channel is 12 kilometers (7.4 miles) wide. They resemble terrestrial meandering rivers in some aspects with meanders, cutoff oxbows, and abandoned channel segments. However, Venus channels are not as tightly sinuous as terrestrial rivers. Most are partly buried by younger lava plains, making their sources difficult to identify. A few have vast radar-dark plains units associated with them, suggesting. large flow volumes. These channels with large deposits appear to be older than other channel types, as they are crossed by fractures and wrinkle ridges, and are often buried by other volcanic materials. In addition, they appear to run both upslope and downslope, suggesting that the plains were warped by regional tectonism after channel formation. Restoration of the Magellan data is about 120 meters (400 feet).</text>
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<text> This image from Magellan's 383rd orbit of Venus shows about half of an unnamed 47 kilometers diameter (28 miles) impact crater; it is the second largest of three similar craters closely grouped in a region of radar-dark (smooth) plains between Lavinia Planitia and Guinevere Planitia. The crater, located at latitude 26.4 degrees S. and longitude 337.3 degrees, was previously seen in Earth-based radar images acquired at the Arecibo radar observatory in Puerto Rico. The crater has many characteristics typical of meteorite impact craters, including a central peak, deposits of hummocky or hilly material immediately surrounding the crater's rim, and smoother more patchy deposits that extend further from the crater rim. Some of the hummocky ejecta appears to extend for some distance along the major lobes formed by the outer ejecta. This radial distribution of the hummocky ejecta may be a consequence of the way the material was thrown from the crater and moved through the atmosphere and along the surface. The crater's central peak, and flat floor are also common to many other impact structures; the latter probably formed by the ponding of lava flows on the crater's floor. Secondary impact craters formed by far-flung ejecta, are also present near the most distal parts of the outer ejecta deposits. The radar-bright ejecta and inner wall of this crater indicate that it is fresh and not noticeably degraded. The resolution of this image is about 150 meters (450 feet); north is to the top. The Magellan radar was illuminating the surface from left to right in this image.</text>
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<text>This image is part of the Helen Region of Venus. The image was obtained by the Magellan radar on August 16, 1990 during a radar test. The location is at 26.7 degrees south latitude, 292 degrees east longitude. The image segment is 47 kilometers (29 miles) wide and 77 kilometers (48 miles) in length. This area illustrates the complex nature of some of the plains. At least two directions of faulting can be seen in the bright linear patterns. The cross fracture pattern is usually associated with high relief, rugged terrain of tessera regions. In this location, however, there appears to be little relief associated with the fracturing. A clue to the interpretation of this region lies in the numerous circular to irregular depressions ranging in size from 500 m (0.3 mile) to 1.5 kilometer (0.9 mile). These depressions appear to be volcanic calderas and are probably associated with extensive volcanic flows that have flooded the tessera. Another probable volcanic feature is the small mound approximately 1.9 kilometer (1.2 mile) in diameter on the right side of the picture in the lower half. The bright lines can be interpreted as fracture or fault traces. The fact that they tend to occur in pairs of lines spaced 500 m (0.3 miles) to 1.5 kilometer (0.9 miles) apart suggest that the lines delineate flooded graben, or fault valleys that have been filled with volcanic flows.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">his Magellan image is centered about 24 degrees north latitude and 334 degrees longitude, in the southern Lakshmi Region of Venus. The image, 600 kilometers (372 miles) in length and 450 kilometers (279 miles) in width, is a mosaic of 24 orbits. The image shows plains that have been fractured in all directions to produce a pattern similar to an alligator's skin. Several large ridges have bright edges, particularly on their southern sides. This may be the result of wind depositing debris at the ridges' southern edge. There are two types of wind streaks associated with small volcanic cones. The first type of streak occurs in the upper left of the image. These radar-bright streaks probably represent depositional material covering the underlying plains. The streaks indicate a northeast-southwest wind flow. The second type of streak is found in the lower left side of the image. These radar-bright streaks are regions of non-deposition or scouring. The underlying plains can be seen in the streak but not in the surrounding area. The streak's fan shape indicates that the wind direction varies over several degrees, with a dominant flow towards the south.</span><span class="style2">Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationPasadena, Calif. 91109</span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text> This dark plains region is of a part of the Lavinia Region in the southern hemisphere at 29.1 degrees south latitude and 337 degrees east longitude. This image is of an area 45 kilometers (28 miles) wide and 77 kilometers (48 miles) long. It shows a variety of features, including volcanic domes and pits, linear fractures, and high-standing mesas bounded by steep cliffs. A bright streaky deposit at the base of the steep cliffs in the upper right indicates downslope movement of material, and possible erosion of accumulation of windblown debris.</text>
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<text>This image was obtained on Saturday, September 15 by the Magellan spacecraft in orbits 376 and 377. The area is centered at 36.4 degrees south latitude, 337.9 degrees east longitude, in the Lavinia Planitia region. The image is 37 kilometers (23 miles) wide, and 79 kilometers (48 miles) long. Narrow troughs, sinuous ridges and a broad arch are common in this area of otherwise smooth plains. The ridges and arches trend NNW and the arch is up to 5 kilometers (3 miles) wide. Most of the troughs trend WNW and are about 400-800 meters (1200-2500 feet) wide. The ridges and arch are similar to wrinkle ridges which are abundant in the lunar maria. Such wrinkle ridges consist of ridges and broad arches which formed in the smooth lava plains when the surface of the maria subsided and shortened. The similarity between wrinkle ridges and the ridges in this image suggests that this area has experienced a small amount of horizontal contraction. The small troughs may represent extension in the orthogonal direction. If the extension was contemporaneous with the compression, then a small amount of left-lateral shear oriented NW-SE is implied.</text>
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<text>This false color Magellan image shows a portion of Leda Planitia (plains) in the northern hemisphere of Venus, centered at 41 degrees north latitude, 52 degrees east longitude. The area is 220 kilometers (135 miles) wide and 275 kilometers (170 miles) long. This image was produced from Magellan radar data collected in Cycle 2 of the mission. Cycle 2 was completed January 15, 1992. The area was not imaged during the first cycle because of superior conjunction when the sun was between the Earth and Venus, preventing communication with the spacecraft. This image contains several of the major geologic terrains on Venus and illustrates the basic stratigraghy or sequence of geologic events. The oldest terrains appear as bright, highly-fractured or chaotic highlands rising out of the plains. This is seen in the upper left, or northwest, quadrant of the image. The chaotic highlands, sometimes called tessera, may represent older and thicker crustal material and occupy about 15 percent of the surface of Venus. The circular ring structure in the lower left of the image is probably an impact crater. This 40 kilometer (25 mile) diameter crater has been given a proposed name, Heloise, after the French physician who lived from about 1098 to 1164 A.D. The crater was formed by the impact of an asteroid sometime before the plains lavas embayed and covered the region. The plains surround and embay the fractured highland tessera. Plains are formed by fluid volcanic flows that may have once formed vast lava seas which covered all the low-lying surfaces. Plains comprise more than 80 percent of the surface of Venus. The most recent activity in the region is volcanism that produced radar-bright flows best seen in the upper right quadrant of the image. Those flows are similar to the darker plains volcanics, but apparently have more rugged surfaces that more efficiently scatter the radar signal back to the spacecraft. Thus the geologic sequence is early fracturing of the tessera, flooding by extensive plains lavas and scattered, less extensive individual flows on the plains surface. Impact cratering occurs throughout geologic history and provides a rough estimate of the time scale. Craters larger than a few kilometers in diameter form on Venus, as they do on Earth, at the rate of about one per million years, with smaller impacts much more frequent than larger ones. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft.</text>
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<text>This false color Magellan image shows a portion of Bereghinya Planitia (plains) in the northern hemisphere of Venus, centered at 31 degrees north latitude, 43 degrees east longitude. The area is 260 kilometers (160 miles) wide and 330 kilometers (200 miles) long. This image was produced from Magellan radar data collected in Cycle 2 of the mission. Cycle 2 was completed January 15, 1992. The area was not imaged during the first cycle because of superior conjunction when the sun was between the Earth and Venus, preventing communication with the spacecraft. This image contains examples of several of the major geologic terrains on Venus and illustrates the basic stratigraphy or sequence of geologic events. The oldest terrains appear as bright, highly-fractured or chaotic highlands rising out of the plains. This is seen in the upper right and lower left quadrants of the image. The chaotic highlands, sometimes called tessera, may represent older and thicker crustal material and occupy about 15 percent of the surface of Venus. Plains surround and embay the fractured highland tessera. Plains are formed by fluid volcanic flows that may have once formed vast lava seas which covered the low-lying surfaces. Plains comprise more than 80 percent of the surface of Venus. The most recent activity in the region is volcanism that produced the radar-bright flows best seen in the lower right quadrant of the image. The lava flows in this image are associated with the shield volcano Tepev Mons, whose summit is near the lower left corner of the image. The flows are similar to the darker plains volcanics, but apparently have more rugged surfaces that more efficiently scatter the radar signal back the spacecraft. The geologic sequence is: early fracturing of the tessera, flooding by extensive plains lavas, and scattered, less extensive individual flows on the plains surface. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft.</text>
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<text>This false color Magellan image shows a portion of Eistla Regio (region) in the northern hemisphere of Venus, centered at 1 degree south latitude, 37 degrees east longitude. The area is 440 kilometers (270 miles) wide and 350 kilometers (220 miles) long. This image was produced from Magellan radar data collected in Cycle 2 of the mission. Cycle 2 was completed January 15, 1992. The area was not imaged during the first cycle because of superior conjunction when the sun was between the Earth and Venus, preventing communication with the spacecraft. This image contains examples of several of the major geologic terrains on Venus and illustrates the basic stratigraphy or sequence geologic events. The oldest terrain appears as bright, highly fractured or chaotic highlands rising out of the plains. This is seen in the right half of the image. The chaotic highlands, sometimes called tessera, may represent older and thicker crustal material and occupy about 15 percent of the surface Venus. The fractured terrain in this region has a distinctly linear structure with a shear-like pattern. Plains surround and embay the fractured highland tessera. Plains are formed by fluid volcanic flows that may have once formed vast lava seas which covered all the low-lying surfaces. Plains comprise more than 80 percent of the surface of Venus. The most recent activity in the region is volcanism that produced the radar bright flows best seen in the upper left quadrant of the image. The flows are similar, in their volcanic origin to the darker plains volcanics, but apparently have more rugged surfaces that more efficiently scatter the radar signal back to the spacecraft. The geologic sequence is: early fracturing of the tessera, flooding by extensive plains lavas, and scattered less extensive individual flows on the plains surface. The simulated hues are based on color images recorded by the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 spacecraft.</text>
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<script>on openCardlock screencolorizeHC "Add","PLANETS:VENUS:UI_MAC:D05.PIC"unlock screenend openCardon mouseDownInPicture thePicturenoPaintWhiteif thePicture is "1467_100.PIC" thenhide window thePictureclose window thePictureelseif thePicture is "1467_099.PIC" thenhide window thePictureclose window thePictureelseif thePicture is "1467_098.PIC" thenhide window thePictureclose window thePictureelse pass mouseDownInPictureend ifend ifresetSystemPaletteloadPalettecolorizeHC "Add","PLANETS:VENUS:UI_MAC:D05.PIC"end mouseDownInPictureon closeCardlock screencolorizeHC "colorFill" -- redraw previous screensunlock screenclosePointerend closeCardon goEventlock screengo to cd "D1"unlock screenend goEventon showCaptionglobal captionshow cd field captionend showCaption</script>
</card>
card_4716.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock screengo to cd "D2"unlock screenend mouseUp</script>
</part>
<part>
<id>2</id>
<type>button</type>
<visible> <true /> </visible>
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<icon>0</icon>
<textAlign>center</textAlign>
<font>Chicago</font>
<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>plain</textStyle>
<name>MASS & DIAMETER</name>
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock screengo to cd "D3"unlock screenend mouseUp</script>
</part>
<part>
<id>3</id>
<type>button</type>
<visible> <true /> </visible>
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<family>0</family>
<titleWidth>0</titleWidth>
<icon>0</icon>
<textAlign>center</textAlign>
<font>Chicago</font>
<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>plain</textStyle>
<name>STRUCTURE</name>
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock screengo to cd "D4"unlock screenend mouseUp</script>
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<part>
<id>4</id>
<type>button</type>
<visible> <true /> </visible>
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<titleWidth>0</titleWidth>
<icon>0</icon>
<textAlign>center</textAlign>
<font>Chicago</font>
<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>plain</textStyle>
<name>SURFACE FEATURES</name>
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock screengo to cd "D5"unlock screenend mouseUp</script>
</part>
<part>
<id>5</id>
<type>button</type>
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<highlight> <false /> </highlight>
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<sharedHighlight> <true /> </sharedHighlight>
<family>0</family>
<titleWidth>0</titleWidth>
<icon>0</icon>
<textAlign>center</textAlign>
<font>Chicago</font>
<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>plain</textStyle>
<name>TEMPERATURE</name>
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock screengo to cd "D15"unlock screenend mouseUp</script>
</part>
<part>
<id>6</id>
<type>button</type>
<visible> <true /> </visible>
<reserved5> 0 </reserved5>
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<textAlign>center</textAlign>
<font>Chicago</font>
<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>plain</textStyle>
<name>ATMOSPHERE</name>
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock screengo to cd "D14"unlock screenend mouseUp</script>
</part>
<part>
<id>7</id>
<type>field</type>
<visible> <true /> </visible>
<dontWrap> <false /> </dontWrap>
<dontSearch> <false /> </dontSearch>
<sharedText> <false /> </sharedText>
<fixedLineHeight> <false /> </fixedLineHeight>
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<style>scrolling</style>
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<multipleLines> <false /> </multipleLines>
<reservedFamily> 0 </reservedFamily>
<titleWidth>0</titleWidth>
<icon>0</icon>
<textAlign>left</textAlign>
<font>Helvetica</font>
<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>bold</textStyle>
<textHeight>16</textHeight>
<name>D1</name>
<script></script>
</part>
<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>7</id>
<text>VenusPlanet statisticsDistance from the Sun: Maximum: 67.6 million miles 108.9 million km 0.728 AU Minimum: 66.7 million miles 107.4 million km 0.718 AU Mean: 67.2 million miles 108.2 million km 0.723 AUPeriod of revolution: 224.7 daysPeriod of rotation (equatorial): 243.0 days (retrograde)Mean orbital velocity: 21.8 miles (35 km) per secondInclination of axis: 178 degreesOrbital eccentricity: 0.007Orbital inclination: 3.39 degreesDiameter at equator: 7,523 miles (12,104 km) 0.949 x EarthΓÇÖs diameterOblateness: 0Mass: 4.87 x 10^24 kg 0.815 x EarthΓÇÖs massVolume: 9.32 x 10^11 km^3 0.86 x EarthΓÇÖs volumeDensity: 5.24 g/cm^3 0.949 x EarthΓÇÖs densitySurface gravity: 8.60 m/s^2 0.90 x EarthΓÇÖs gravityEscape velocity: 6.4 miles (10.4 km) per secondMean surface temperature: 896 F / 480 C / 753 KMaximum apparent diameter as seen from Earth: 65.2ΓÇ¥Albedo: 0.76Number of known moons: 0Mean diameter of Sun as seen from the planet: 44' 15"</text>
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock Screengo to card "D1"unlock Screenend mouseUp</script>
</part>
<part>
<id>2</id>
<type>button</type>
<visible> <true /> </visible>
<reserved5> 0 </reserved5>
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<enabled> <true /> </enabled>
<rect>
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<style>transparent</style>
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<highlight> <false /> </highlight>
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<sharedHighlight> <true /> </sharedHighlight>
<family>0</family>
<titleWidth>0</titleWidth>
<icon>0</icon>
<textAlign>center</textAlign>
<font>Chicago</font>
<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>plain</textStyle>
<name>Tours</name>
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock Screengo to card "T1"unlock Screenend mouseUp</script>
</part>
<part>
<id>3</id>
<type>button</type>
<visible> <true /> </visible>
<reserved5> 0 </reserved5>
<reserved4> 0 </reserved4>
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<enabled> <true /> </enabled>
<rect>
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<style>transparent</style>
<showName> <false /> </showName>
<highlight> <false /> </highlight>
<autoHighlight> <false /> </autoHighlight>
<sharedHighlight> <true /> </sharedHighlight>
<family>0</family>
<titleWidth>0</titleWidth>
<icon>0</icon>
<textAlign>center</textAlign>
<font>Chicago</font>
<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>plain</textStyle>
<name>EXPLORATION</name>
<script>on mouseUpframeHilitelock Screengo to card "E1"unlock Screenend mouseUp</script>
</part>
<name>MAIN MENU</name>
<script>on openCardlock screencolorizeHC "Add","PLANETS:VENUS:UI_MAC:VENUS.PIC"unlock screennoPaintWhitepalette "venMMenu", "0,417"end openCardon closeCardlock screencolorizeHC "colorFill" -- redraw previous screensunlock screenif there is a window "VENUS211KHz Movie" then ¬close window "VENUS211KHz Movie"noPaintWhiteif there is a window "venMMenu" then ¬close window "venMMenu"end closeCard</script>
(Multicom)[Mac-PC].iso/pc/venus/venus.hc/BMAP_6943.png){kind=link}
(Multicom)[Mac-PC].iso/pc/venus/venus.hc/PATs.png){kind=link}